This thesis investigates empirically three topics related, respectively, to school leaving, unemployment and retirement. It consists of three independent research articles, accompanied by a general introduction and a conclusion section. Chapter 1 investigates the extent to which the demand for post-compulsory education of British 16-year-olds responds to local labour market conditions. The findings show that prevailing unemployment rates influence the schooling decisions of students from a less affluent family background, while students from better-off families tend to enrol in post-compulsory education irrespectively of labour market conditions. Factors associated with the family’s socio economic status, such as parental tastes for education and social norms, are arguably at the base of the different behaviours. Chapter 2 analyses the persistence in unemployment incidence during the last two decades. The methodology employed allows disentangling the true state dependence from the confounding role played by observed and unobserved heterogeneity. The evidence supports that unemployment experiences "scar" British workers by compromising their future employability. The findings also suggest a countercyclical pattern of true state dependence as unemployment scars more during recessions. Chapter 3 studies the extent to which retirement influences the cognitive capital of British older workers. The analysis relies on an instrumental variable approach to address the endogeneity bias. Consistent with the "use it or lose it" hypothesis, the results suggests that retirement contributes significantly to the cognitive decline suffered at older ages by British workers. The final section of the thesis summarises the main findings of the three chapters and discusses policy implications and extensions.

This thesis challenges the widely held theories based on quantitative research which suggest entrepreneurs are a particular type of individual, and exhibit certain traits. The study analyses the contention that entrepreneurs have to act in particular ways during the evolution of their business. It adopts sensemaking as a conceptual tool, to examine the effects of cognitions, motivations, and self-efficacy on organisational change. The study is based on a combination of auto-ethnographic and ethnographic methods; this approach offers a unique insight into the working lives of different entrepreneurs. The thesis underlines the practical and emotional issues individuals’ face when placed in context of their organisations. The magical view of entrepreneurs held by society is one of many issues raised which negatively affects them during their journey. The main contribution of the thesis is to the field of Entrepreneurial and Organisational Studies in advancing knowledge and understanding.

This thesis puts forward the hypothesis that there exists within us an Immortality Phantasy which can help to explain the relationship between creativity and destruction. The Immortality Phantasy occurs in response to sublimation, leading to desexualised libido and the release of self-destructive impulses and can help to explain the connection between creativity and destruction. As a result of the first identifications with the Oedipal parent, we can see a defusion of instinct occur, which allows for the concurrent release of creative and destructive energies. The ego is left unprotected against the death instinct, resulting in guilt and punishment for Oedipal phantasies. However, through creativity and reparation on the page, a survival can occur, and it is this survival which must be repeated; it is also responsible for the oscillation often viewed in creative artists between manic creativity and melancholia. Each repetition is a symbolic phantasy of victory over the father, but with the survival, there is also the accompanying destruction. So we can define the Immortality Phantasy as the symbolic matrix of the desire for survival, stemming from the repetition of the defusion of instinct following sublimation. The Immortality Phantasy allows for an indulgence in destructive behaviour due to an omnipotent belief in our immortality. The ego acts as if it cannot be destroyed, which allows it in turn to survive this created destruction, reinforcing this idea. This thesis explores in detail Freud’s theories of the life and death instinct, whilst giving close considerations to the existing theoretical ideas on creativity, aesthetics and melancholia. Three novels are used as case studies to test the Immortality Phantasy hypothesis: The Spire by William Golding, Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf and The Sorrows of Young Werther by Goethe.

The purpose of this thesis is to mobilise the concept of network sociality (Wittel 2001) as a framework for exploring how social entrepreneurs enact social entrepreneurship. Specifically, this thesis questions the tendency to interpret social entrepreneurs and their ability to achieve their altruistic aim of solving social problems only in terms of the successful application of business practices such as financial control, marketing, and strategising. Instead it is argued that critically deploying the concept of network sociality does two things. Firstly, it highlights the importance of also depicting and understanding the nature of the social processes (i.e., interactions with other stakeholders) which play a crucial role in the success of social entrepreneurial activity. Network sociality therefore helps to conceptualise the under researched activities which precede social change. Secondly, this thesis facilitates a move away from the dominant stance in the literature where the social entrepreneur is conceptualised in terms of either an individualist 'solitary hero' operating alone without the assistance of others (Nicholls 2010), or alternatively as a communally embedded actor operating in the context of strong ties of solidarity (Hjorth and Bjerke 2006; Hjorth 2013; Steyaert and Hjorth 2007). The aim of this thesis is to shed light on the social processes inherent in doing business in a social entrepreneurship context, by drawing on data derived from 33 semi-structured interviews with social entrepreneurs located in the south east of England. An abductive analysis (Van Maanen, Sørensen and Mitchell 2007; Tavory and Timmermans 2014) whereby the interview data is read through the five dimensions of the concept of network sociality - individualisation, ephemeral relations, information exchange, assimilation of play and work, and use of technology - facilitates a critique of the literature privileging outcomes at the expense of conceptualising the social actions that precede and facilitate these outcomes (826 Seymour, Richard 2012), as well as the prevailing dichotomy in the social entrepreneurship literature where the 'social' element is conceptualised largely in collectivist (Hjorth 2013; Steyaert and Hjorth 2007), philanthropic (Tan, Williams and Tan 2003; Tan, Williams and Tan 2005) terms while the 'entrepreneurship' element is conceptualised in largely individualist business terms (Dees, Emerson and Economy 2002). The analysis sheds light on social entrepreneurship beyond the distinction of collective versus individual (Nicholls 2010). Through the use of the concept of network sociality, the thesis rather makes visible how the social entrepreneur engages in several social activities while operating in an individualistic manner to achieve social/business aims within the context of impermanent relationships (113 Wittel, Andreas 2001). The thesis concludes that it is in researching and conceptualising what social entrepreneurs do, that we can better understand who social entrepreneurs are, in their missions to secure positive solutions to social problems.

Self-awareness theory and social identity theory both concern the impact of the self-concept on behaviour. Self-awareness theory addresses the process of individual self-regulation in terms of private and public standards. Self-focused attention increases the influence of these standards. Social identity theory presumes that the self can be designed in term s of social category membership. Intergroup behaviour ensues when these social identifications are salient. It is theorised that the public/private self-focus and social/personal identity distinctions are orthogonal. Focus on the private aspects of self may include a social identification and lead to intergroup behaviour. Fenigstein, Scheier and Buss' (1975) Self-Consciousness Scale is assessed and discriminates reliably between private and public self-consciousness. The first experiments reveal no impact of self-awareness manipulations on intergroup ratings. In the next experiment, increased attention to social categorisation raises the amount and consistency of discrimination. The finding that private, but not public, self-focus reinforces social identification under relevant conditions also emerges in the next study. Different standards for 'public' behaviour may prevail when different audiences observe, and 'private' standards may depend on identification with the group. In an experiment testing these propositions identification is accurately reflected only to an ingroup audience - a result which is replicated. In the final experiment, video feedback with an ingroup audience minimises, wheras that without maximises, ingroup bias, due to variations in the impact of different aspects of identity. Ingroup bias reflects identification only when private self-consciousness is high or public self-consciousness is low. Across experiments self-esteem reliably affects intergroup behaviour, and referent informational, rather than normative, influence predominates. The social identification and self-awareness approaches are each enriched by the other. A model of identitifaction in group contexts and the view that behaviour may serve self-preserving motives are proposed. The conceptual and empirical ambiguity between 'salience' and 'attention' remain to be resolved. These cognitive factors in intergroup behaviour may not have simple effects because other, social, factors, exert influences to alter their impact.

With a combined annual revenue of approximately $250 billion dollars, the luxury industry is highly significant, from a financial and commercial point of view. Within luxury, an area that is becoming increasingly important due to the visibility of this industry is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). While consumers are still not actively demanding CSR in luxury products and services, and there is evidence that CSR is not a key area of interest for the luxury industry; the luxury industry is becoming the target of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders interested in environmental and ethical practices. Thus, it is essential that luxury companies explore CSR implementation, as neglecting to do so, is likely to affect their brands and their brand value. One of the most important assets that luxury firms have is brand value, an intangible asset influenced by consumer and company-led actions. CSR is a company-led action, which depending on how it is managed, can either increase or decrease brand value. It is important to note that to understand the role of CSR within luxury and how it can influence brand value, it is not possible to study CSR in isolation, as this would not fully reveal its importance in the wider context of brand value overall. Thus, CSR needs to be studied alongside other factors affecting brand value. Despite the fact that CSR can influence brand value in luxury, CSR is still overlooked by the industry. Due to the increasing relevance of CSR within luxury, this research explores the role of CSR within luxury and how it, together with other factors, contributes to brand value in luxury. An additional consideration is that despite the importance of brand value in luxury, the industry does not normally measure, manage and leverage brand value. As a result, it is also necessary to examine how brand value is perceived within luxury. To meet these research goals, a mixed methods approach was selected. More specifically, a theoretical framework was built with input from the literature and interviews with key interviewees from the luxury industry. Then, the theoretical framework was tested quantitatively. The quantitative analysis was conducted with a dataset based on consumer panels, and additional secondary data including Bloomberg, CSRHub, Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI), Interbrand, and company reports. The results were subject to ‘credibility checks’ with interviewees from the industry. It is noteworthy to highlight that for the statistical analysis, one of the largest datasets with US consumer data was used. Similarly, for the qualitative interviews, representatives from some of the largest luxury companies in the world in terms of brand value, and luxury stakeholders were recruited. The results from this research suggest that despite the importance of brand value within luxury; brand value is not widely understood by the industry and it is not measured, managed or leveraged. This research also suggests that CSR, company size, having controlled distribution, country of origin, marketing and research and development (R&D)/design, energized differentiation, esteem, and relevance; are critical factors to brand value. Consequently, luxury brands need to manage all these determinants to be able to create and preserve brand value. Nevertheless, while all these determinants are important, their importance can vary by brand; depending on brand size, brand category, target market, and whether the brand is heritage or non-heritage. With regard to CSR, an outcome from this research is that CSR is becoming an increasingly important contributor to brand value in luxury. Still, the luxury industry is not fully aware that CSR implementation is consistent with key luxury values such as high-quality and service and luxury’s long-term vision; and that stringent CSR policies and practices constitute a potential strategy to anticipate future regulatory and social constraints. Furthermore, CSR implementation within luxury is generally limited to discrete actions, such as collaboration with the arts, compliance, local production, philanthropy/voluntarism, and use of environmentally friendlier materials. It is crucial that luxury companies incorporate CSR into the DNA of their brands and choose a CSR strategy aligned with their brand vision. Luxury brands may be able to positively change consumer perceptions of CSR and, thus, drive consumer demand. Also, engagement with CSR may result in a competitive advantage to them and in a potential increase in their brand value. Moreover, the results suggest that brand knowledge is overemphasized by the luxury industry, although it does not appear to be essential for brand value in luxury. Additionally, with respect to brand relevance, this research makes a case to consider brand desirability as a potentially more appropriate determinant of brand value within a luxury context.

This thesis examines the adherence of credit unions to their co-operative principles. Noting the financial crisis of 2008 and the calls for change to a more ethical, transparent and fairer financial industry co-operatives appear to be a plausible way forward. The analysis of the corporate governance of co-operatives indicates that they are founded on co-operative principles, the cornerstone being the active participation by its members. The study of the previous literature demonstrates instances where co-operatives did not adhere to their principles as well as instances where members were not very active. Credit unions in Cyprus were selected as the specific co-operative industry and geographic location for the collection of data; one of the reasons being that in March 2013, six months prior to the first collection of data, Cyprus suffered a second financial crisis, giving the opportunity to investigate these two issues in a time of scrutiny and pressure. Structured interviews with thirty credit union employees, documents (statistics) from the ex-supervisory body and three focus groups with thirty members (in total) were carried out. The findings show that credit unions do not seem to adhere to their principles and members do not seem to be actively involved with their credit unions. As the warning bells for their long-term survival may have already sounded, credit unions must encourage their members to get involved, rebuild their trust amongst them, among membership and the society in general, provide co-operative-related training and restrict the involvement of the political parties. Finally, ways must be found so that credit unions remain closely involved with the societies they serve. To this extent, Service-Dominant Logic is proposed as a possible way in assisting credit unions to re-focus on their membership.

Between 1919 and 1936 proceedings for solicitation in Liverpool fell by 98%, with the city having gone from accounting for 17.5% of street prostitution in England and Wales to just 0.3% between these years. So infrequent were arrests against street prostitution by the mid-thirties - for example, in 1934 there were just 10 arrests for solicitation compared to 733 in 1919 - that from 1937 solicitation and brothel offences appeared as an amalgamated category in the local criminal statistical returns. In the national context, proceedings for solicitation fell by 29% between 1919 and 1936, a considerably smaller but nevertheless significant decline. Indeed, this image of decline and improvement seemingly accords with the broader historiography of British prostitution which has tended to conceptualise the interwar period as one of relative stability sandwiched between the upheaval of the First and Second World Wars and emerging from the shadows of Victorian depravity. Crucially, however, in the midst of continued decline prostitution garnered intense political and public attention in Britain throughout the interwar period, crystallised nowhere more palpably than in the establishment of the Street Offences Committee in 1927, the first serious review of prostitution legislation since the repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts in the late-nineteenth century. Whilst the past five years have seen the emergence of the first sustained studies of interwar prostitution, the historiography remains geographically limited to London. This thesis offers the first sustained study of prostitution in interwar Liverpool. Through a close reading of Liverpool’s court registers it also marks the first critical examination and ultimately challenge of this concept of decline. In moving beyond the smokescreen of improvement it exposes the period as a complex and distinct moment in the history of British prostitution, and one which allows us to make sense of why at the very time the offence rates were showing unprecedented decline prostitution never strayed far from the political, legal and cultural agendas.

Nursing as a profession has historically been largely dominated by females, both in terms of the demographical profile and the common perception of nursing being a task for women. A small minority of men do however practice as nurses and as such are anomalous in a female dominated profession. Drawing on profeminist theories of masculinities this study aimed to investigate the experiences of men working as nurses in Ireland, how they relate to masculinities and how they negotiate a gendered identity. Using a qualitative interpretative methodology 16 in-depth interviews were conducted with practicing male nurses. Results reveal tensions and contraindications for men in negotiating gendered identities as nurses with significant evidence of positioning in relation to hegemonic ideals. The fluidity and contingency of masculinities is also revealed, particularly in relation to emotionality and embodiment. This study contributes to the knowledge base of sociological theories of masculinities but also to knowledge about the nursing profession and its gendered aspects.

The main purpose of this study is to advance the research of public sector performance in Saudi Arabia, by investigating leaders’ use of internal branding strategies, since the majority of research in internal branding has been conducted in western countries and the private sector. This is achieved by investigating the effects of leadership (Brand Based Transformational Leadership and Brand Based Transactional Leadership), on Brand Internalisation and its effect on increasing performance in the public sector. Other factors influencing public sector performance are also investigated including Structural Authority constraints, HR red tape, rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic) and brand training. The conceptual model integrates the key factors that influence the public sector employees’ ability to internalise the organisational brand values; and how Brand Internalisation influences public sector performance in terms of in-role behaviour, and extra-role behaviour (public sector performance). The effect of both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards is also examined in terms of increasing Brand Internalisation and public sector performance. In doing so, this study represents one of the few attempts made to investigate the potential value of internal branding and brand based leadership in increasing public sector performance in the Saudi Arabian public sector. The research adopted an exploratory approach; the first stage consisted of interviews with 16 public sector middle managers in the Riyadh Municipality, Saudi Arabia. This was followed by a survey that was distributed to public sector employees. Data was collected from 352 employees in the Riyadh Municipality. The initial qualitative phase highlighted complexities and factors related to internal branding and offered insights into brand-leadership in the public sector from the perspectives of the middle managers. The survey then further investigated the findings from the interviews and highlighted the areas necessary for a revised conceptual model. The results of the research show that the three most important elements that positively influence public sector performance in Saudi Arabia are brand based transactional leadership, brand related training, and intrinsic rewards. The research argues that these three elements not only increase a public sector employee’s ability to internalise the organisational brand values and ability to “live the brand” but they also have a direct positive effect on increasing the day-to-day performance levels of employees in the Saudi Public Sector. The results of a post hoc analysis are also shared showing interesting results variations between employees on the basis of their gender, age, educational levels, role and grade in the public sector organisation.