O hidrogênio é uma fonte de energia limpa, pois sua combustão gera apenas água. Porém, ainda há a necessidade de se encontrar soluções tecnologicamente eficientes, econômicas e seguras para sua geração e uso. A produção do H2 por vias biológicas, conhecido como biohidrogênio, vem ganhando grande destaque nos últimos anos, pois possibilita o uso de materiais renováveis como matéria-prima. Materiais lignocelulósicos são potenciais substratos para a produção de H2 por fermentação, no entanto se faz necessário dispor de métodos de hidrólise que disponibilizem os componentes destes materiais para a fermentação. A maior parte dos métodos disponíveis para hidrolisar materiais lignocelulósicos resulta em produtos de degradação de carboidratos, que são reconhecidamente inibidores de fermentação. Este estudo, primeiramente, avaliou o efeito de 3 diferentes grupos de inibidores sobre a produção de H2 por fermentação: (1) ácido orgânico, como o ácido acético; (2) derivados de furano, tais como o furfural e o 5-hidroximetilfurfural (5-HMF); (3) monômeros fenólicos derivados da lignina, tais como o siringaldeído, vanilina e ácido 4-hidroxibenzóico (AHB). Ensaios de fermentação para a produção de H2 em batelada utilizaram como inóculo uma cultura mista (lodo) e foram realizados na presença de glicose e diferentes concentrações dos mencionados inibidores. O modelo de Gompertz modificado foi utilizado para estimar os parâmetros cinéticos dos ensaios de fermentação, como o volume máximo de H2 (P), velocidade máxima de produção de H2 (Rm) e o tempo necessário para o início da produção de H2 (). A partir destes ensaios foi verificado como a adição de diferentes concentrações de inibidores afetou tais parâmetros cinéticos em relação a um controle (apenas contendo glicose). Desta forma foi possível estimar as concentrações dos inibidores que reduzem em 50% as velocidades máximas de produção de H2 a concentração inibitória 50 (CI 50). Em termos de CI 50, o AHB proporcionou a maior inibição (0,38 g.L-1), seguido do 5-HMF e o furfural, com valores de CI 50 de 0,48 e 0,62 g.L-1, respectivamente. A vanilina, o siringaldeído e o ácido acético apresentaram os menores efeitos inibitórios sobre a produção de H2 dentre os inibidores testados, com CI 50 de 0,71; 1,05; e 5,14 g L-1, respectivamente. Numa segunda etapa do trabalho foi avaliado o efeito inibitório da associação de 3 inibidores, representantes de cada uma das classes de inibidores, o ácido acético, o 5-HMF e o siringaldeído. Foi observado um efeito aditivo da inibição quando o ácido acético foi adicionado juntamente com o 5-HMF, porém em ensaios contendo siringaldeído o efeito inibitório tornou-se sinérgico. Por fim, foi utilizado um hidrolisado de bagaço de cana de açúcar como substrato na produção de H2 por fermentação. A produção de H2 a partir deste substrato só foi possível após o tratamento do hidrolisado com carvão ativado. Portanto, concluiu-se que os compostos inibitórios presentes em hidrolisados de materiais lignocelulósicos condicionam a viabilidade da produção de H2 com estes materiais. Este estudo permitiu concluir que os compostos estudados, exceto os monossacarídeos, resultantes da hidrólise de materiais lignocelulósicos, inibem a produção de H2 pela cultura mista utilizada em diferentes graus, sendo o AHB o mais inibidor. A combinação de compostos inibidores potencializa ainda mais o efeito inibitório sobre a produção de H2. O ácido acético, que pode se originar dos hidrolisados, mas que também é um metabólito da produção de H2 por fermentação aumentou ainda mais a inibição do siringaldeído. Assim, sugere-se que a hidrólise de materiais lignocelulósicos deve ser conduzida de forma a minimizar a presença dos inibidores nos hidrolisados, a fim de maximizar o aproveitamento da biomassa lignocelulósica como matéria-prima no processo fermentativo. / Hydrogen is a clean energy source because its combustion produces only water. However, there is still the need to find technologically efficient, economic and safe solutions for their generation and use. The production of H2 by biological pathways, known as biohydrogen, has gained great prominence in recent years because it enables the use of renewable materials as raw material. Lignocellulosic materials are potential substrates for H2 production by fermentation, however it is necessary to have methods that provide hydrolysis of the components of these materials for fermentation. Most methods are available for hydrolyzing lignocellulosic materials results in carbohydrate degradation products are fermentation inhibitors known. This study was primarily to evaluate the effect of 3 different groups inhibitors of the H2 production by fermentation: (1) organic acid such as acetic acid; (2) furan derivatives such as furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF); (3) phenolic derivatives of lignin monomers, such as syringaldehyde, vanillin and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (HBA). Fermentation tests for H2 production batch used as a mixed culture inoculum (sludge) and were carried out in the presence of glucose and different concentrations of the inhibitors mentioned. The modified Gompertz model was used to estimate the kinetic parameters of the fermentation test, the maximum volume of H2 (H), maximum rate of H2 production (Rm) and the time required for the commencement of production of H2 () . From these tests it was observed how the addition of different concentrations of inhibitors affect these kinetic parameters relative to a control (containing only glucose). Thus it was possible to estimate the concentrations of inhibitors that reduce by 50% the maximum production speeds H2 - The inhibitory concentration 50 (IC 50). In terms of IC 50, the AHB provided the greatest inhibition (0.38 g L-1), followed by 5-HMF and furfural, with IC 50 values of 0.48 and 0.62 g L-1, respectively. Vanillin, syringaldehyde and the acetic acid had minor inhibitory effects on H2 production from the tested inhibitors with IC50 of 0.71; 1.05; and 5.14 g L-1, respectively. In a second stage of work, the inhibitory effect of 3 inhibitors association representatives of each class inhibitors, acetic acid, and 5-HMF syringaldehyde. An additive effect of inhibition when acetic acid was added along with 5-HMF was observed in assays containing syringaldehyde but the inhibitory effect became synergistic. Finally, we used a hydrolyzate of sugarcane bagasse as substrate in H2 production by fermentation. The production of H2 from this substrate was only possible after the hydrolyzate treatment with activated carbon. Therefore, it was concluded that the inhibitory compounds present in hydrolyzed lignocellulosic materials affect the viability of H2 production with these materials. This study concluded that the studied compounds, other monosaccharides resulting from the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials, inhibit the production of H2 by mixed culture used in varying degrees, being most AHB inhibitor. The combination of compounds further enhances the inhibitory effect of inhibitors on the production of H2. Acetic acid, which can originate the hydrolysates, but is also a metabolite of H2 production by fermentation further increased inhibition of syringaldehyde. Thus, it is suggested that the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials should be conducted to minimize the presence of inhibitors of the hydrolysates, in order to maximize the utilization of lignocellulosic biomass as a raw material in the fermentation process.

This research examined the influence of organic loading rate (OLR) and biosolids type on the performance of fermentative H2-producing membrane bioreactors (HPMBRs) with respect to H2 production and membrane fouling. Five OLRs ranging from 4.0 to 30 g COD L-1 d-1 were examined in a lab-scale HPMBR. The system performance with both suspended and granulated biosolids was also investigated. The H2 yield from the suspended biosolids HPMBR was not significantly influenced by OLR at OLRs ≤ 13 g COD L-1 d-1, appeared to be maximized at an OLR of 22 g COD L-1 d-1, and then decreased as the OLR was increased further. An optimum OLR that maximizes H2 yield may be near the OLR that causes reactor overload with respect to substrate utilization. Under the same operating conditions, the H2 yield from a suspended HPMBR was significantly higher than that from a granulated HPMBR. A higher H2 consumption rate and a higher concentration of bound extracellular polymeric substances from the granulated HPMBR may contribute 5–48% and 25–67% of the H2 production difference between the two systems, respectively. The experimental results accompanied with microscopic examination of fouled membrane surfaces indicated that biosolids deposition and colloidal adhesion were the two dominant membrane fouling mechanisms in the HPMBRs. Membrane fouling was characterized by two distinct stages: an initial stage with a relatively higher fouling rate and a second stage with a lower fouling rate. Membrane fouling rates and resistances were influenced by the properties of biosolids and colloids in the mixed liquor. The fouling rates increased with increased biomass concentration, but decreased as colloids became more negatively charged. The irreversible and irremovable fouling resistance increased with increased concentration of colloids, while the removable fouling resistance had no relationship with biomass concentration. Biosolids granulation may benefit membrane performance due to a lower colloidal concentration produced. The single cake filtration model was proper to simulate membrane performance in the initial fouling stage. Both cake filtration and combined cake-standard models provided good fits for the second fouling stage, whereas future study is required to improve model predictability for membrane fouling in this stage.

This research examined the influence of organic loading rate (OLR) and biosolids type on the performance of fermentative H2-producing membrane bioreactors (HPMBRs) with respect to H2 production and membrane fouling. Five OLRs ranging from 4.0 to 30 g COD L-1 d-1 were examined in a lab-scale HPMBR. The system performance with both suspended and granulated biosolids was also investigated. The H2 yield from the suspended biosolids HPMBR was not significantly influenced by OLR at OLRs ≤ 13 g COD L-1 d-1, appeared to be maximized at an OLR of 22 g COD L-1 d-1, and then decreased as the OLR was increased further. An optimum OLR that maximizes H2 yield may be near the OLR that causes reactor overload with respect to substrate utilization. Under the same operating conditions, the H2 yield from a suspended HPMBR was significantly higher than that from a granulated HPMBR. A higher H2 consumption rate and a higher concentration of bound extracellular polymeric substances from the granulated HPMBR may contribute 5–48% and 25–67% of the H2 production difference between the two systems, respectively. The experimental results accompanied with microscopic examination of fouled membrane surfaces indicated that biosolids deposition and colloidal adhesion were the two dominant membrane fouling mechanisms in the HPMBRs. Membrane fouling was characterized by two distinct stages: an initial stage with a relatively higher fouling rate and a second stage with a lower fouling rate. Membrane fouling rates and resistances were influenced by the properties of biosolids and colloids in the mixed liquor. The fouling rates increased with increased biomass concentration, but decreased as colloids became more negatively charged. The irreversible and irremovable fouling resistance increased with increased concentration of colloids, while the removable fouling resistance had no relationship with biomass concentration. Biosolids granulation may benefit membrane performance due to a lower colloidal concentration produced. The single cake filtration model was proper to simulate membrane performance in the initial fouling stage. Both cake filtration and combined cake-standard models provided good fits for the second fouling stage, whereas future study is required to improve model predictability for membrane fouling in this stage.

O hidrogênio é uma fonte de energia limpa, pois sua combustão gera apenas água. Porém, ainda há a necessidade de se encontrar soluções tecnologicamente eficientes, econômicas e seguras para sua geração e uso. A produção do H2 por vias biológicas, conhecido como biohidrogênio, vem ganhando grande destaque nos últimos anos, pois possibilita o uso de materiais renováveis como matéria-prima. Materiais lignocelulósicos são potenciais substratos para a produção de H2 por fermentação, no entanto se faz necessário dispor de métodos de hidrólise que disponibilizem os componentes destes materiais para a fermentação. A maior parte dos métodos disponíveis para hidrolisar materiais lignocelulósicos resulta em produtos de degradação de carboidratos, que são reconhecidamente inibidores de fermentação. Este estudo, primeiramente, avaliou o efeito de 3 diferentes grupos de inibidores sobre a produção de H2 por fermentação: (1) ácido orgânico, como o ácido acético; (2) derivados de furano, tais como o furfural e o 5-hidroximetilfurfural (5-HMF); (3) monômeros fenólicos derivados da lignina, tais como o siringaldeído, vanilina e ácido 4-hidroxibenzóico (AHB). Ensaios de fermentação para a produção de H2 em batelada utilizaram como inóculo uma cultura mista (lodo) e foram realizados na presença de glicose e diferentes concentrações dos mencionados inibidores. O modelo de Gompertz modificado foi utilizado para estimar os parâmetros cinéticos dos ensaios de fermentação, como o volume máximo de H2 (P), velocidade máxima de produção de H2 (Rm) e o tempo necessário para o início da produção de H2 (). A partir destes ensaios foi verificado como a adição de diferentes concentrações de inibidores afetou tais parâmetros cinéticos em relação a um controle (apenas contendo glicose). Desta forma foi possível estimar as concentrações dos inibidores que reduzem em 50% as velocidades máximas de produção de H2 a concentração inibitória 50 (CI 50). Em termos de CI 50, o AHB proporcionou a maior inibição (0,38 g.L-1), seguido do 5-HMF e o furfural, com valores de CI 50 de 0,48 e 0,62 g.L-1, respectivamente. A vanilina, o siringaldeído e o ácido acético apresentaram os menores efeitos inibitórios sobre a produção de H2 dentre os inibidores testados, com CI 50 de 0,71; 1,05; e 5,14 g L-1, respectivamente. Numa segunda etapa do trabalho foi avaliado o efeito inibitório da associação de 3 inibidores, representantes de cada uma das classes de inibidores, o ácido acético, o 5-HMF e o siringaldeído. Foi observado um efeito aditivo da inibição quando o ácido acético foi adicionado juntamente com o 5-HMF, porém em ensaios contendo siringaldeído o efeito inibitório tornou-se sinérgico. Por fim, foi utilizado um hidrolisado de bagaço de cana de açúcar como substrato na produção de H2 por fermentação. A produção de H2 a partir deste substrato só foi possível após o tratamento do hidrolisado com carvão ativado. Portanto, concluiu-se que os compostos inibitórios presentes em hidrolisados de materiais lignocelulósicos condicionam a viabilidade da produção de H2 com estes materiais. Este estudo permitiu concluir que os compostos estudados, exceto os monossacarídeos, resultantes da hidrólise de materiais lignocelulósicos, inibem a produção de H2 pela cultura mista utilizada em diferentes graus, sendo o AHB o mais inibidor. A combinação de compostos inibidores potencializa ainda mais o efeito inibitório sobre a produção de H2. O ácido acético, que pode se originar dos hidrolisados, mas que também é um metabólito da produção de H2 por fermentação aumentou ainda mais a inibição do siringaldeído. Assim, sugere-se que a hidrólise de materiais lignocelulósicos deve ser conduzida de forma a minimizar a presença dos inibidores nos hidrolisados, a fim de maximizar o aproveitamento da biomassa lignocelulósica como matéria-prima no processo fermentativo. / Hydrogen is a clean energy source because its combustion produces only water. However, there is still the need to find technologically efficient, economic and safe solutions for their generation and use. The production of H2 by biological pathways, known as biohydrogen, has gained great prominence in recent years because it enables the use of renewable materials as raw material. Lignocellulosic materials are potential substrates for H2 production by fermentation, however it is necessary to have methods that provide hydrolysis of the components of these materials for fermentation. Most methods are available for hydrolyzing lignocellulosic materials results in carbohydrate degradation products are fermentation inhibitors known. This study was primarily to evaluate the effect of 3 different groups inhibitors of the H2 production by fermentation: (1) organic acid such as acetic acid; (2) furan derivatives such as furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF); (3) phenolic derivatives of lignin monomers, such as syringaldehyde, vanillin and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (HBA). Fermentation tests for H2 production batch used as a mixed culture inoculum (sludge) and were carried out in the presence of glucose and different concentrations of the inhibitors mentioned. The modified Gompertz model was used to estimate the kinetic parameters of the fermentation test, the maximum volume of H2 (H), maximum rate of H2 production (Rm) and the time required for the commencement of production of H2 () . From these tests it was observed how the addition of different concentrations of inhibitors affect these kinetic parameters relative to a control (containing only glucose). Thus it was possible to estimate the concentrations of inhibitors that reduce by 50% the maximum production speeds H2 - The inhibitory concentration 50 (IC 50). In terms of IC 50, the AHB provided the greatest inhibition (0.38 g L-1), followed by 5-HMF and furfural, with IC 50 values of 0.48 and 0.62 g L-1, respectively. Vanillin, syringaldehyde and the acetic acid had minor inhibitory effects on H2 production from the tested inhibitors with IC50 of 0.71; 1.05; and 5.14 g L-1, respectively. In a second stage of work, the inhibitory effect of 3 inhibitors association representatives of each class inhibitors, acetic acid, and 5-HMF syringaldehyde. An additive effect of inhibition when acetic acid was added along with 5-HMF was observed in assays containing syringaldehyde but the inhibitory effect became synergistic. Finally, we used a hydrolyzate of sugarcane bagasse as substrate in H2 production by fermentation. The production of H2 from this substrate was only possible after the hydrolyzate treatment with activated carbon. Therefore, it was concluded that the inhibitory compounds present in hydrolyzed lignocellulosic materials affect the viability of H2 production with these materials. This study concluded that the studied compounds, other monosaccharides resulting from the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials, inhibit the production of H2 by mixed culture used in varying degrees, being most AHB inhibitor. The combination of compounds further enhances the inhibitory effect of inhibitors on the production of H2. Acetic acid, which can originate the hydrolysates, but is also a metabolite of H2 production by fermentation further increased inhibition of syringaldehyde. Thus, it is suggested that the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials should be conducted to minimize the presence of inhibitors of the hydrolysates, in order to maximize the utilization of lignocellulosic biomass as a raw material in the fermentation process.

The fact that hydrogen is a clean and versatile fuel offers an attractive carbon-free source of energy and leverages the U.S. economy toward long-term sustainable economic growth. At an industrial scale, hydrogen production is mostly relying on methane steam reforming producing stoichiometric amounts of carbon oxides (CO and CO2), which imposes economic and environmental concerns. To mitigate the issue, we propose NH3 assisted anaerobic reforming of natural gas liquids (ethane and propane) as an alternative approach to produce COx free hydrogen. Here, in the first chapter, through comprehensive performance evaluation, characterization, and transient kinetic studies, it is shown that the atomically dispersed Re-oxo grafted into framework Al of the HZSM-5 zeolite are highly active and stable for the ammonia reforming of ethane and propane at temperatures comparable to steam reforming ≤ 650 °C. In the second chapter, an alternative non- noble Ni/Ga intermetallic compound (IMC) with various Ni to Ga ratios is synthesized through the solvothermal synthesis by forming the oxalate MOF precursor. The result indicates that while Ni-rich samples form pure Ni3Ga IMC with promising catalytic performance, the Ga rich catalyst consists of segregated phases of Ni/Ga IMC and Ga2O3 with ill-defined structure showing lower stability despite the high activity. In chapter 3, a bifunctional Ni/Ga supported ZSM-5 is successfully developed in ethane aromatization. Influence of metal function in early-stage and steady-state activity and stability as well as structure reactivity relation was investigated applying comprehensive characterization, performance test, deactivation modeling, and transient studies. The results suggest that a tandem reaction mechanism between Ni3Ga intermetallic compound, Ga cation, and Bronsted acid sites of zeolite is responsible for the superior performance of bimetallic catalysts compared to their monometallic counterpart. In the last chapter, applying transient kinetic technique, the mechanism of ethane aromatization over Pt and Zn supported ZSM-5 model catalysts was precisely explored. The results reveal that despite mechanistic differences between these catalysts, ethane amortization on both catalysts follows a hydrocarbon pool mechanism.

An investigation was undertaken to determine the feasibility of increasing the hydrogen production rate by coupling the water gas shift (WGS) process to the hybrid sulphur process (HyS). This investigation also involved the technical and economical analysis of the water gas shift and the H2 separation by means of Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) process. A technical analysis of the water gas shift reaction was determined under the operating conditions selected on the basis of some information available in the literature. The high temperature system (HTS) and low temperature system (LTS) reactors were assumed to be operated at temperatures of 350ºC and 200ºC, respectively. The operating pressure for both reactors was assumed to be 30 atmospheres. The H2 production rate of the partial oxidation (POX) and the WGS processes was 242T/D, which is approximately two times the amount produced by the HyS process alone. The PSA was used for the purification process leading to a hydrogen product with a purity of 99.99%. From the total H2 produced by the POX and the WGS processes only 90 percent of H2 is recovered in the PSA. The unrecovered H2 leaves the PSA as a purge gas together with CO2 and traces of CH4, CO, and saturated H2O. The estimated capital cost of the WGS plant with PSA is about US$50 million. The production cost is highly dependent on the cost of all of the required raw materials and utilities involved. The production cost obtained was US $1.41/kg H2 based on the input cost of synthesis gas as produced by the POX process. In this case the production cost of synthesis gas based on US $6/GJ for natural gas and US $0/Ton for oxygen was estimated to be US $0.154/kg. By increasing the oxygen and natural gas cost, the corresponding increase in synthesis gas has resulted in an increase in H2 production cost of US $1.84/kg. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Chemical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

Hydrogenases are a family of enzyme that catalyses the bidirectional interconversion of H⁺ and H₂. There are two major classes of hydrogenases: the [NiFe(Se)]- and [FeFe]-hydrogenases. Both of these benefit from characteristics which would be advantageous to their use in technological devices for H₂ evolution and the generation of energy. These features are explored in detail in this thesis, with a particular emphasis placed on defining the conditions that limit the activity of hydrogenases when reducing H⁺ to produce H₂. Electrochemistry can be used as a direct measure of enzymatic activity; thus, Protein Film Electrochemistry, in which the protein is adsorbed directly onto the electrode, has been employed to probe catalysis by hydrogenases. Various characteristics of hydrogenases were probed. The catalytic bias for H₂ production was interrogated and the inhibition of H₂ evolution by H₂ itself (a major drawback to the use of some hydrogenases in technological devices to produce H₂) was quantified for a number of different hydrogenase. Aerobic inactivation of hydrogenases is also a substantial technological limitation; thus, inactivation of both H₂ production and H₂ oxidation by O₂ was studied in detail. This was compared to inhibition of hydrogenases by CO so as to elucidate the mechanism of binding of diatomic molecules and determine the factors limiting inactivation. This allows for a preliminary proposal for the genetic redesigning of hydrogenases for biotechnological purposes to be made. Finally, preliminary investigation of the binding of formaldehyde, potentially at a site integral to proton transfer, opens the field for further research into proton transfer pathways, the structural implications thereof and their importance in catalysis.

No presente trabalho estudou-se uma nova rota para obter nanopartículas de prata e silício aleatoriamente dispersas em uma matriz nanoporosa de nanotubos de óxido de alumínio sobre alumínio. Além disso, estudou-se a aplicação deste novo material como ânodo em células a combustível alcalinas com etanol como combustível, usando a prata como catalisador na eletroxidação do etanol e da produção de H2. O processo proposto consiste na solidificação rápida mediante melt spinner de uma liga de alumínio-prata rica em alumínio (95.25% em peso de alumínio) para obter uma solução sólida supersaturada. Posteriormente foi feita uma anodização porosa em ácido oxálico e estudo eletroquímico em meio alcalino por meia hora. A morfologia da liga obtida foi caracterizada por Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura, Difração de Raios-X, Microscopia Eletrônica de Transmissão equipado com Espectrometria de Raios X Dispersiva em Energia e avaliado o desempenho como ânodo mediante ensaios de voltametria cíclica Os resultados obtidos confirmam que o desenvolvimento de um novo processo para produzir nanopartículas cristalinas de prata com um tamanho que varia de 4 a 120 nm, com 95% delas entre 4 e 87 nm. A partir dos estudos eletroquímicos concluiu-se que a liga de Al-Ag produzida exibe um comportamento semelhante ao alumínio puro em NaOH 0.1 M e NaOH 0.1 M com 1 M de etanol. A reação entre o alumínio e o meio alcalino produz uma camada de hidrogênio que impede que a prata catalise a eletroxidação do etanol. Portanto, conclui-se que a liga de alumínio-prata produzida não é um material viável como ânodo em células a combustível alcalinas de etanol direto. Portanto, foi avaliado o método de produção de nanopartículas para uma liga Al-Si eutética (14.2% em peso). Esta liga com nanopartículas de silício apresentou um incremento no desempenho na produção de H2 de 17% comparado à liga Al-Si eutética sem o tratamento térmico. / In the present work a new route to obtain silver nanoparticles randomly dispersed in a porous Al2O3 nanotube matrix layer on aluminum was studied. Moreover, the use as an anode in alkaline fuel cells (AFC) with ethanol as combustible was studied, using the prepared surfaces as a catalyzer for the electrooxidation of ethanol. The developed process consists of the rapid solidification (quenching) through melt spinning of an aluminum-silver alloy (92.25 %wt. Al) to obtain a supersaturated solid solution, followed by a porous anodization in oxalic acid and electrochemical treatment in alkaline medium. The morphology of the alloy was characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy, X-Ray Diffraction, Transmission Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X. Ray Spectrometry and the performance of the ethanol electrooxidation was tested though cyclic voltammetry The obtained results confirm that this process produces crystalline silver nanoparticles with a size varying from 4 to 120 nm with 95% of the particles between 4 and 87 nm. The electrochemical study showed that the produced alloy exhibits a similar behavior to that of pure aluminum in the tested mediums. The reaction between the aluminum and the alkaline medium produces a gaseous hydrogen layer that impedes the catalytic action of silver on the ethanol oxidation. Moreover, it was concluded that the produced alloy is not a viable material for the use as anode for direct ethanol AFCs. Therefore, the nanoparticle production method was tested for an Al-Si near-eutectic alloy (14.2 %wt.). This alloy with silicon nanoparticles showed an increase in the performance of H2 production rate of 17% compared to that of the regular Al-Si near-eutectic alloy.

An investigation was undertaken to determine the feasibility of increasing the hydrogen production rate by coupling the water gas shift (WGS) process to the hybrid sulphur process (HyS). This investigation also involved the technical and economical analysis of the water gas shift and the H2 separation by means of Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) process. A technical analysis of the water gas shift reaction was determined under the operating conditions selected on the basis of some information available in the literature. The high temperature system (HTS) and low temperature system (LTS) reactors were assumed to be operated at temperatures of 350ºC and 200ºC, respectively. The operating pressure for both reactors was assumed to be 30 atmospheres. The H2 production rate of the partial oxidation (POX) and the WGS processes was 242T/D, which is approximately two times the amount produced by the HyS process alone. The PSA was used for the purification process leading to a hydrogen product with a purity of 99.99%. From the total H2 produced by the POX and the WGS processes only 90 percent of H2 is recovered in the PSA. The unrecovered H2 leaves the PSA as a purge gas together with CO2 and traces of CH4, CO, and saturated H2O. The estimated capital cost of the WGS plant with PSA is about US$50 million. The production cost is highly dependent on the cost of all of the required raw materials and utilities involved. The production cost obtained was US $1.41/kg H2 based on the input cost of synthesis gas as produced by the POX process. In this case the production cost of synthesis gas based on US $6/GJ for natural gas and US $0/Ton for oxygen was estimated to be US $0.154/kg. By increasing the oxygen and natural gas cost, the corresponding increase in synthesis gas has resulted in an increase in H2 production cost of US $1.84/kg. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Chemical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

The photocatalytic production of H2 from water as well as from a 1:1 methanol:water solution employing pre–treated TiO2 and various Pt–TiO2 photocatalysts was studied by using an Nd:YAG laser as irradiation source. The photocatalysts (0.5–, 1–, 1.5– and 2 wt% Pt–TiO2) were prepared by utilizing a photocatalytic reduction method after which characterisation by various analytical techniques, i.e. XRD, TEM, ICP, SEM, and EDX, were conducted. XRD clearly indicated that platinum was not present in the crystal structure of TiO2, but was rather loaded onto the surface of TiO2. TEM analysis confirmed the presence of Pt on the surface with a particle/cluster size between 11 nm and 22 nm. SEM showed that repeatable results in respect of surface appearance were obtained. ICP and EDX indicated that the loading method was successful with only a slight deviation between the actual amount loaded and the calculated amount loaded. The impact of the loaded Pt on the band gaps of the different photocatalysts was investigated by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) and calculated by employing the Kubelka–Munk method. The band gap values shifted sequentially from 3.236eV to 3.100 eV as the loading increased, moving closer to the absorbance region for visible light. The amount of hydrogen produced from the individual photocatalysts dispersed in both pure water and aqueous methanol solutions, was measured manually with a gas chromatograph. As soon as irradiation was initiated, a distinct colour change from shades of grey to dark blue–grey was observed for all the photocatalysts. XRD confirmed that it was due to the anatase phase transforming to produce more rutile phase. No H2 was detected for the various photocatalysts suspended in water, i.e. in the absence of methanol. The amount of hydrogen produced from the various Pt photocatalysts suspended in the aqueous methanol solution was found to be the highest for the 0.5wt%– and 1.5wt% Pt–TiO2 photocatalysts and the lowest for the 2wt% Pt–TiO2. This could be due to loading Pt above the optimum amount to such an extent, preventing sufficient light from reaching the TiO2 surface. Pt particles can also touch and overlap which will decrease Pt contact with TiO2 thus decreasing effective charge transfer. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Chemistry))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.