Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit HIV-assoziierten neurokognitiven Störungen unter besonderem Fokus auf Prävalenz und Ausmaß der Erkrankung in Tansania. In der CTC-Klinik des Bugando Medical Centres wurde eine neurokognitive Testbatterie implementiert. Diese wurde nach internationalen Standards entworfen und fragte u.a. Konzentrations- und Erinnerungsvermögen, Aufmerksamkeit sowie motorische Fähigkeiten ab. Die Teilnehmer wurden in drei Gruppen eingeteilt, eine HIV positive Gruppe unter antiviraler Therapie (n=101), eine HIV positive Gruppe ohne Therapie (n=88) und einer HIV negative Kontrollgruppe (n=62). Das Personal der CTC wurde geschult die Test durchzuführen. 55 (54,5%) der Teilnehmer der ersten Gruppe leiden an asymptomatischen neurokognitiven Einschränkungen. 38,6% weisen bereits milde Einschränkungen auf. In der Therapie-naiven Gruppe sind es deutlich weniger. Betrachtet man alle HIV positiven Teilnehmer der Studie, haben 67,2% bereits neurokognitive Einschränkungen. Es war noch keiner der Teilnehmer an einer HIV assoziierten Demenz erkrankt. Diese Zahlen demonstrieren, wie wichtig die Diagnostik zur Erkennung neurokognitiver Erkrankungen in Länder mit eingeschränkten Ressourcen ist. Die Studie hat gezeigt, dass das Integrieren einer solchen Testbatterie in den klinischen Alltag nicht schwierig ist. Im Bereich HIV/AIDS gibt es ein gut ausgebautes Netz an speziellen Kliniken, Hilfsgruppen, Aufklärungsprogrammen, Beratung und vielem mehr, das eventuell in Zukunft dazu beitragen könnte das Bewusstsein für diese Form von HIV-assoziierten Erkrankungen zu stärken (Freeman et. al. 2005) und neurokognitive Testbatterien als Routineuntersuchungen zu installieren, um Therapie und Betreuungsmöglichkeiten zu verbessern. / 30 - 60% of people living with HIV / AIDS develop an HIV associated neurocognitive disorder. Patients are complaining about forgetfulness, poor concentration, difficulties in problem solving and reading, apathy, reduced spontaneity and withdrawal from society. Physical impairment can be seen by tremor, ataxia and balance difficulties. Although clinical experience shows that HIV associated neurocognitive deficits are common and often self reported by patients, the exact extend of the problem is unknown. The instruments used for a proper and reproducible assessment so far have not been available in Tanzania. Just recently psychometric testing has been introduced as an assessment tool at the CTC clinic of Bugando Medical Centre. This will allow a systematic examination and follow up of patients by non-invasive methods. This study aims to provide data on the prevalence of HAND in Tanzania

Background: Integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) are the latest addition to the array of antiretroviral compounds used to treat an infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Due to their high efficacy and increased tolerability, INSTIs have become an integral part of first-line therapy in most high-income countries over the past years. However, little is known about HIV-1’s genetic inter- and intra-subtype diversity on the Integrase (IN)-gene and its impact on the emergence of INSTI-resistance. In the absence of a functional cure, long-term efficacy of first-line compounds remains paramount for reducing virological failure and curbing on-going HIV transmissions. South Africa, harbouring more than 20% of the global HIV burden (7.7 / 37.9 million people), requires international attention in order to globally pursue UNAIDS’ (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS) 90-90-90 goals and the road to ending the HIV/AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) pandemic by 2030. Methods: In this study, the prevalence of INSTI-resistance associated mutations (RAM) was investigated in a cohort of 169 archived drug-naïve blood samples from multiple collection sites around Cape Town, South Africa. Viral RNA was isolated from plasma samples, the integrase fragment amplified by RT-PCR and subsequently sequenced by Sanger-sequencing. Additionally, all publicly available drug-naïve, South African IN sequences, isolated before the availability of the first INSTIs in 2007, were retrieved from the Los Alamos HIV sequence database (n=284). All sequences were analysed for RAMs using the Stanford HIV Drug resistance database. The identification of polymorphism in the South African subtype C IN consensus sequence allowed for comparative analyses with global subtype B, as well as subtype C sequences, from countries other than South Africa. Results: The IN gene could be amplified and sequenced in 95/169 samples (56%). Phylogenetic inference revealed close homology between three sequence-pairs, warranting the exclusion of 3/95 sequences from further analyses. Of the 92 samples used for mutational analyses, 86/92 (93.5%) belonged to subtype C, 5/92 (5.4%) to subtype B and 1/92 (1.1%) to subtype A. The prevalence of major and accessory INSTI RAMs was 0/92 (0%) and 1/91 (1.1%), respectively, similar to the observed rates of 8/284 (2.8%) and 8/284 (2.8%) in the database sequences (p = 0.2076 and p = 0.6944, Fisher’s exact test). Compared to subtype B IN sequences, 15 polymorphisms were significantly enriched in South African subtype C sequences (corrected p<0.0015. Fisher’s exact test, Bonferroni post-hoc procedure). Compared to subtype C IN sequences isolated outside South Africa, four polymorphisms were significantly enriched in this study cohort (corrected p<0.0014, Fisher’s exact test, Bonferroni post-hoc procedure). The highest prevalence margin was observed for the polymorphism Met50Ile being present in 60.1% of South African subtype C sequences, compared to 37% in non-South African subtype C sequences. Conclusions: The low prevalence of major and minor RAMs in all South African Integrase sequences predicts a high susceptibility to INSTIs, however, the presence of natural polymorphisms, in particular Met50Ile, in the majority of sequences warrants further monitoring under therapeutic pressure, as their role in mutational pathways leading to INSTI- resistance is yet to be determined. Additionally, this study revealed the presence of substantial inter- and intra-subtype diversity within the HIV-1 Subtype C IN-gene. These results implicate the need for more research on a regional, potentially patient-specific level, as mutational insights from other diverse backgrounds may not accurately represent the South African context. The implementation of a national pre-treatment INSTI-resistance screening program may provide necessary insights into the development of mutational pathways leading to INSTI-resistance under therapeutic pressure for the South African context and thereby bring South Africa one step closer to achieving UNAIDS 90-90-90 goals and ending the AIDS epidemic by 2030. / Hintergrund: Integrase Strang-Transfer Inhibitoren (INSTIs) sind die neuste medikamentöse Ergänzung in der Therapie einer HIV-Infektion. Auf Grund ihrer starken Wirksamkeit und eines guten Nebenwirkungsprofils sind INSTIs in den letzten Jahren ein integraler Bestandteil von Erstlinien-Therapieregimen in den meisten wirtschaftlich starken Ländern geworden. Allerdings ist wenig bekannt über die genetische Variabilität des IN-gens und über ihren Einfluss auf die Entwicklung von INSTI-Resistenzen. Mit einem Anteil von über 20% der globalen HIV-Last (7,7 / 37,9 Millionen Menschen) benötigt Südafrika einen internationalen Fokus, um die von UNAIDS formulierten 90-90-90 Ziele und das mögliche Ende der HIV/AIDS Pandemie bis 2030 auf globaler Ebene zu verfolgen. Methoden: In dieser Arbeit wurde die Prävalenz von INSTI RAMs in einer Kohorte von 169 archivierten, therapie-naiven Blutproben von mehreren Sammelstellen um Kapstadt, Südafrika, untersucht. Virale RNA wurde aus Plasmaproben isoliert, das Integrase-Fragment mittels RT-PCR amplifiziert und anschließend Sanger-sequenziert. Zusätzlich wurden alle in der Los Alamos HIV Sequenz Datenbank verfügbaren, therapie-naive, südafrikanische IN Sequenzen, die vor der Verfügbarkeit von INSTIs im Jahr 2007 isoliert wurden, der Analyse dieser Arbeit hinzugefügt (n=284). Die Interpretation der gefundenen Mutationen erfolgte mittels der HIV Therapie-Resistenz Datenbank der Stanford Universität. Durch Generierung eines südafrikanischen IN Subtyp C Consensus-Stranges und nachfolgendem Vergleich mit öffentlich verfügbaren Subtyp B und Subtyp C Sequenzen, die außerhalb Südafrikas isoliert wurden, erfolgte die Analyse von natürlich vorkommenden Polymorphismen. Ergebnisse: Das IN-Fragment konnte in 95/169 Plasmaproben (56%) erfolgreich amplifiziert und sequenziert werden. Phylogenetische Analysen zeigten eine enge Homologie zwischen drei Sequenz-Paaren, woraufhin 3/95 Sequenzen von weiteren Analysen ausgeschlossen wurden. Von den übrigen 92 Sequenzen gehörten 86/92 (93,5%) zu dem Subtyp C, 5/92 (5,4%) zu dem Subtyp B und 1/91 (1,1%) zu dem Subtyp A. Die Prävalenz von Haupt- und Nebenresistenz-Mutationen lag bei jeweils 0/92 (0%) und 1/92 (1,1%). Ähnliche Raten hierfür von 8/284 (2,8%) und 8/284 (2,8%) konnten in den Datenbank-Sequenzen beobachtet werden (p = 0,2076 und p = 0,6944, Fisher’s exact test). Im Vergleich zu Subtyp B IN Sequenzen waren 15 Polymorphismen signifikant erhöht in südafrikanischen Subtype C IN Sequenzen (korrigiertes p<0,0015, Fisher’s exact test, Bonferroni post-hoc Korrektur). Im Vergleich zu nicht-südafrikanischen Subtyp C Sequenzen zeigten sich vier Polymorphismen signifikant erhöht (korrigiertes p<0,0014, Fisher’s exact test, Bonferroni post-hoc Korrektur). Der größte Prävalenzunterschied konnte für den Polymorphismus Met50Ile beobachtet werden. Dieser war vorhanden in 217/361 (60,1%) der südafrikanischen Subtyp C Sequenzen, verglichen zu 203/548 (37.0%) der nicht-südafrikanischen Subtyp C Sequenzen. Schlussfolgerung: Die niedrige Prävalenz von Haupt- und Neben-RAMs in südafrikanischen IN-Sequenzen verspricht ein gutes Ansprechen von INSTIs in diesem Kontext. Allerdings bedingt das Vorhandensein von natürlichen Polymorphismen, insbesondere der Polymorphismus Met50Ile das weitere Beobachten dieser Mutationen unter dem Einfluss von therapeutischem Druck, da deren Bedeutung in der Entwicklung von INSTI-Resistenzen noch nicht abschließend geklärt werden konnte. Zudem impliziert die in dieser Arbeit gezeigte inter- und intra-subtyp Diversität auf dem IN-Gen, die Notwendigkeit von weiterer Forschung auf regionaler Ebene, da Beobachtungen, die auf verschiedenen polymorphistischen Kontexten beruhen, nicht notwendigerweise auf den südafrikanischen Kontext übertragen werden können. Mit der Einführung eines nationalen, prä-therapeutischen Screening- Programms für das Vorhandensein von INSTI-Resistenzen könnte Südafrika wichtige Einblicke in die Entwicklung von INSTI-Resistenzen gewinnen und somit den 90-90-90 Zielen und der Möglichkeit die AIDS-Pandemie bis zum Jahr 2030 zu beenden, einen Schritt näher sein.

The South African tuberculosis (TB) epidemic is driven mainly by HIV, and the TB disease burden is greater in males than females. Additional factors that drive the epidemic include undiagnosed and untreated TB, contributing to transmission; and highly prevalent TB risk factors such as alcohol misuse, smoking, diabetes, and undernutrition, which increase the risk of progression to TB disease. These factors are distributed differently by sex and likely explain the observed sex disparities in TB. The South African TB control programme has implemented multiple interventions, including directly observed therapy strategy (DOTS), antiretroviral therapy (ART), intensified screening activities, the provision of isoniazid preventative therapy (IPT) and the implementation of Xpert MTB/RIF as a first-line diagnostic tool. However, few analyses have quantified the historical impact of HIV and the combined impact of TB interventions on the South African TB epidemic at a national level. In addition, factors that influence sex disparities in the South African TB burden have not been explored thoroughly. Also, it remains uncertain whether, with existing interventions, it would be feasible for South Africa to meet the End TB targets to reduce TB incidence and mortality by 80% and 90% respectively (relative to 2015 levels) by 2030. This thesis aims to address the abovementioned gaps in knowledge and provide insights into understanding the population-level TB dynamics, using a mathematical model. The first objective is to quantify TB incidence and mortality due to HIV and assess the impact of interventions mentioned above on TB incidence and mortality between 1990 and 2019. The second objective is to explore the extent to which the following factors contribute to sex differences in TB: HIV, ART uptake, smoking, alcohol abuse, undernutrition, diabetes, health-seeking patterns, social contact rates and TB treatment discontinuation. The third objective is to project the future impact of increasing screening, improving linkage to TB care and retention, increasing preventative therapy, and reducing ART interruptions. An age- and sex-stratified dynamic tuberculosis transmission model for South Africa was developed. To dynamically model the effect of HIV and ART on TB incidence and mortality, the TB model was integrated into the Thembisa model, a previously developed HIV and demographic model. In addition, age- and sex-specific relative risks were applied to rates of progression to TB disease to capture age and sex differences in tuberculosis incidence. The model also included a diagnostic pathway representing health-seeking patterns and the sensitivity and specificity of the diagnostic algorithm. A Bayesian approach was used to calibrate the model to the numbers of people starting treatment from the electronic tuberculosis register, deaths from the vital register, microbiological tests, and the national tuberculosis prevalence survey. The model estimated rapid increases in TB incidence and mortality in the mid-to-late 1990s, influenced by HIV. Between 1990 and 2019, approximately eight million people developed tuberculosis, and two million died from TB; HIV accounted for at least half and two-thirds of the TB incidence and mortality, respectively. The TB epidemic peaked in the mid-to-late 2000s, followed by declines until 2019. The ART program and TB screening efforts, which were expanded in the mid-2000s, contributed the most to reductions in TB incidence and mortality, while other interventions had minor impacts. Due to the heavier HIV burden in women than men, women experienced greater HIV-associated TB incidence and mortality than men. However, because of the higher ART uptake among women than men, women experienced greater relative reductions in TB incidence and mortality over the period 2005– 2019. Consequently, the higher TB burden among men has been sustained; the estimated male-to-female ratios of TB incidence and mortality in 2019 were 1.7 and 1.65, respectively. Additional factors explaining the excess TB in men are smoking, alcohol abuse and delays in health-seeking patterns. Sex differences in undernutrition, social contact patterns, and treatment discontinuation had minimal effect on TB sex disparities. Projections of the model to 2030, considering the effects of COVID-19-related disruptions to TB care, suggest that increasing TB screening would be the most impactful among all interventions explored. However, the model also suggests that the 2030 End TB milestone is unlikely to be met by scaling up existing interventions. Other interventions that need to be explored include targeted universal TB testing and other diagnostic tests such as digital chest x-rays, urine Lipoarabinomannan, and biomarkers to identify individuals at risk of TB disease. Accelerating progress toward TB incidence and mortality reductions will require developing affordable and efficient rapid diagnostic tools to identify potential and active TB cases. Research and innovation efforts towards finding a vaccine effective in preventing TB disease are also critical. In addition, it is essential to improve the uptake of TB preventative therapy in HIV-positive individuals and perhaps further expand provision to other TB risk groups

The study is grounded in the concept of “Start where the people are” (Nyswander, 1956) which suggests that effective health campaigns that promote prevention strategies to enhance the quality of life for those targeted must be rooted in the prevalent cultural practices and religious values of the receivers of the slogans, themes, and taglines. Health campaigns that superimpose the values of the outsiders promoted as universalized solutions have limited effectiveness. Sub-Saharan Africa has only 1.3 billion people out of an estimated eight billion of which China and India each recording above two billion, cumulatively accounting for more than half of the world population. Yet sub-Saharan Africa is the epicenter of HIV infections with more than 68% (avert.org), or nearly 26 million out of almost 38 million people living with HIV, globally. This scenario demands that global citizens should foster effective collaborations to end human suffering. Among the ten nations in the world hardest hit by HIV, seven of them are in the southern African region where Botswana, in position three at 18.6% is trailing her next-door neighbors, Lesotho (20.9%) and Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) which leads the pack with 27.9% (UNAIDS Report 2022). This study, therefore, focuses on children and adolescents between 15 and 24 in Botswana. According to a surveillance report (Botswana AIDS Impact Survey 2021) covering the period from March to August, adolescents and youths in Botswana are a source of concern. The report puts the national prevalence at 20.8% or 329,000 persons of the reproductive population (15-49 ages) are living with HIV. This sobering picture is despite the free availability of treatment drugs at no cost since 2002, when Botswana became the first African nation to roll out antiretroviral treatment (HAART interchangeably called ARVs) that was adapted as Masa – ‘a ray of hope of a new dawn’ in 2002. Further, the continued increase in new HIV infections among people of ages 15 to 24 since 2010 is recorded amid major prevention campaigns sponsored through global health partnerships, translating into billions of U S dollars. Numerous HIV prevention strategies developed in the West using empirical data and technology include condom use, antiretroviral regimens known as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), and treatment as prevention popularized as undetectable equals untransmissible (U = U). Social media channels like Facebook, TikTok, YouTube, Snapchat, and Instagram are awash with these HIV prevention strategies, and the adolescent population of Botswana consumes information about everything, including these HIV prevention campaigns. These mentioned strategies seem to provide effective barriers against the intrusion of HIV in the “key populations,” a United Nations preferred term to refer to members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intravenous drug users (LGBTQI) communities in the Western nations. However, these strategies require major adjustments when launched in sub-Saharan Africa, this study’s results show, or they are the right message targeted to the wrong audience, mainly because of a lack of cultural representation in the nuanced taglines, headlines, slogans, and themes. The study suggests that for HIV to be eliminated, participatory research and co-learning where Western science and technology on one hand, and African indigenous knowledge, on the other hand, can fuse in the design of strategies should be prioritized as an emergency.

Im Jahr 2015 wurde Plasmaproben von 161 HIV-positive Menschen auf HIV-Drug-Resistance untersucht. Die Patienten waren therapienaiv und wurde am Lighthouse-Hospital in Lilongwe, die Hauptstadt Malawis behandelt. Es zeigte sich eine HIVDR von insgesamt 17% welche aus mehreren Gesichtspunkte dargestellt worden sind, um zu zeigen ob 20105 in Malawi eingesetzte first-line Therapieregime eine gute Wirksamkeit zeigte. / The thesis investigates the prevalence of drug resistant HIV-Infections in non-treated patients in 2015 at the Lighthouse Hospital in Lilongwe, the capital city of Malawi. 161 plasma samples have been collected and analyzed to look into the rates of HIVDR in the collective and examine how this can be related to national HIVDR levels, the WHO guidelines and put in perspective how the results may have had an impact in the evolution of ART in Africa, but also worldwide. Firstly HIV-RNA was isolated from the plasma samples. The HIV-RNA was then transcribed in DNA and afterwards amplified to collect multiple copies of the gag-pol area of the genome, which contains the genetic information for the HIV Reverse Transcriptase (RT) and Protease (P). The experiments concluded with sequencing the gag-pol area of the HIV-DNA and entering the sequences in the Databank of the Stanford University to establish the HIV-Subtype and detect HIVDR and its severity in the drug classes of Protease Inhibitors (PI) as well as Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTI) and Non-nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTI). HIV RNA was isolated in 100 samples and were successfully sequenced. An overall rate of 17% mutations associated with HIVDR was found. Some samples showed multiple mutations, 13 % in the class of NNRTI, 8 in the class of PI and 1% in the class of NRTI. A further examination showed the severity of the HIVDR mutations in these drug classes and some particular substances that were recommended as first-line therapy regime by national guidelines in Malawi. In 2015 TLE (ART consisting of Tenofovir and Lamivudine, two NRTIs as well as Efavirenz, an NNRTI) was recommended as first-line regime by nationals guidelines. 13% high- and intermediate-level HIVDR was found for Efavirenz. There was a significant higher probability for a Patient in the group to show an HIVDR for Efavirenz in comparison to other substances of the first-line drug regime. The TLE Regime which has been used in 2015 at the Lighthouse Hospital in Lilongwe had an overall good effect in the therapy of HIV-Infections. Still the results show that 12% of the patients may suffer from poor response due to HIVDR. In these cases a transmitted HIVDR maybe assumed in these non treated patients. These may seem alarming, but it is not sure if the patients were forward about their therapy, or if maybe drug sharing or self therapy with drugs from black market could have been an issue. In conclusion these high rates of HIVDR in the drug class of NNRTI was also seen world wide in other examinations. As a response, the WHO updated Guidelines recommend since 2018 other ART regimes consisting of a combination with Integrase Inhibitors (INI) when available. Studies show that INI are less susceptible to develop an HIVDR due to a high resistance barrier. Still this medication is expensive an not always available in poor countries. The annual reports of UNAIDS give a positive development in the fight to contain HIV world-wide.

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Zusammenfassung Hintergrund: Das saure Gliafaserprotein (GFAP) kommt im ZNS vor allem in Astrozyten vor und spielt eine Rolle bei der Astrozytose, die wiederum ist ein pathogenetisches Merkmal von HIV-assoziierten neurologischen Erkrankungen (HAND). In dieser Arbeit wird das Vorkommen von GFAP-Autoantikörpern bei PLWH und deren Bedeutung bei der Entstehung von HAND untersucht. Außerdem wird eruiert, ob GFAP-Autoantikörper als Marker eines neurokognitiven Defizites bei HAND in Frage kommen. Methoden: Homogenisiert Gewebeschnitte von verschiedenen Gehirnareale wurden mittels SDS-Gelelektrophorese und Western Blot auf Membranen übertragen. Diese Membranen wurden mit Blutproben aus der HAND-1 Studie inkubiert. Der Nachweis von GFAP-Antikörpern erfolgte indirekt mittels eines IgG-Antikörpers. Die Anti-GFAP Signalintensitäten wurden semiquantitativ ausgewertet und mit den Daten der neurokognitiven Test der HAND-1 Studie korreliert. Egebnisse: Die GFAP-Autoantikörper Signalintensität unterscheidet sich je nach Gehirnareal (p < 0,0001). Insbesondere die DM-Signale sind signifikant stärker als die der anderen Areale (p < 0,01). Es lässt sich insgesamt kein signifikanter Unterschied in der Signalstärke zwischen Menschen mit HIV und Kontrollen feststellen (p = 0,1742). Bei der HIV-Gruppe zeigt das Gesamtergebnis des MMS einen signifikanten, negativen und starken Zusammenhang mit der GFAP- Antikörpersignalintensität der Areale DM (p = 0,004), ST (p = 0,011), MC (p = 0,007) und FC (p = 0,002). Es konnten keine signifikanten Korrelationen zwischen den CD4-Zellzahlen und den Anti-GFAP Signalintensitäten festgestellt werden. Bei der Kontrollgruppe fanden sich lediglich vereinzelt signifikante Korrelationen. Diskussion: Diese Promotion ist die bis dato erste Veröffentlichung, in der GFAP-Autoantikörper bei Menschen mit HIV gemessen wurden. Dass kein Unterschied im Vorkommen von GFAP-Ak bei PLWH und der Kontrollgruppe gefunden wurde, könnte an der geringen Teilnehmendenzahl oder am Mangel von Teilnehmenden mit HAD liegen. Andererseits könnte es auch dafür sprechen, dass anti-GFAP nicht obligat pathogen ist, sondern erst nach Übertritt über die Blut-Hirn-Schranke pathologische Folgen hat. Für diese Hypothese spricht die Erkenntnis, dass eine höhere Menge von GFAP-Ak mit einem schlechteren Abschneiden bei neurokognitiven Tests korreliert. Demnach könnten sich GFAP-Autoantikörper als diagnostische und möglicherweise prognostische Marker eines neurokognitiven Defizites bei HAND eignen. / Abstract Background: The glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is the most important structural protein of astrocytes. It plays a role in the process of astrocytosis, which is a response of astrocytes to injury that is pathogenetic for HIV associated neurological diseases (HAND). This dissertation aims to examine the presence of GFAP autoantibodies in people living with HIV (PLWH) and the antibodies’ role in the development of HAND. Methods: Tissue sections of different brain areas were homogenized. Using SDS-Gelelectrophoresis and Western Blotting the proteins were then transferred onto membranes. Those membranes were incubated with blood samples from the HAND-1 study. A specific IgG antibody was used to detect GFAP antibodies. The anti-GFAP signals were evaluated with a semiquantitative method and correlated with data from neurocognitive tests done for the HAND-1 study. Results: Overall, there was no significant difference in anti-GFAP signal strength between PLWH and members of the control group (p = 0,1742). The intensity of the GFAP autoantibody signal differed depending on the brain area (p < 0,0001). The signals from the medulla oblongata region were significantly stronger that those from other areas (p < 0,01). There was a significant and strong negative correlation between the results of the neurocognitive tests and the intensity of the GFAP autoantibody signal. There was no significant correlation between the CD4 cell count and the GFAP antibody signal level. Discussion: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time anti-GFAP was measured in PLWH. There was no significant difference in the amount of anti-GFAP found in PLWH and members of the control group. This could be due to the limited number of study participants or participants with HIV associated dementia (HAD). However, we hypothesize that GFAP autoantibodies are not intrinsically toxic but that they could have pathologic effects once they cross the blood brain barrier. The finding that the amount of GFAP antibodies correlates with the severity of the neurocognitive deficit supports this hypothesis. Due to this correlation GFAP antibodies are worth considering as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker of neurocognitive deficits in people with HAND.