This study explores the ways in which the Western concept of child abuse is understood by parents and professionals in Korea and how it is applied to Korean society. In order to address this, attention will be focused on parents' and relevant professionals' attitudes and perceptions in relation to child rearing, along with their responses to the problem of child abuse. Qualitative methodologies were used; semi-structured in-depth interviews with 50 participants. The findings suggest that Korean society may be operating on assumptions about child rearing and family life which differ markedly from those in the West. In particular many Korean parents and some of the relevant professionals did not define or understand `child abuse' as their equivalents in the West. Power relationships and familial collectivism seemed to be interwined in creating situations which Western commentators would see as abusive to children. There was recognition that maltreatment existed and needed to be policed but this had not been internalised by all strata of society. Therefore, there was a deep uncertainty and ambivalence towards the concept of child abuse and good child rearing and its implication for child development. Notably, there was a sense of ambivalence about the appropriateness of using physical chastisement. In spite of the majority saying that it was not right, it was still viewed as a permissible or even necessary form of discipline. This suggests that both parents and professionals face considerable confusion and doubt as to whether certain parenting behaviour is abusive. This study concludes that there is a need for a meaningful national consensus as to the best ways of translating legislation into reality. The acceptance of a degree of intervention in family life by the state, programmes of education about child development and what children need to develop healthily, raising awareness of how children are harmed, and the legitimacy of corporal punishment should be addressed through national debate. The main aim has to be to promote the safety and welfare of children. The first essential is to put consideration of the needs and rights of children at the centre of policy and the development of policy and practice should be shaped by this.

In January of 2001 the Government announced its intention to repeal Part 11 of the Family Law Act 1996. Originally scheduled for implementation in 2000, the Act had provided for fundamental changes to English divorce law, including removing matrimonial 'fault' from the divorce process, and encouraging mediation as the preferred method of dispute resolution. The Family Law Act began life as a set of recommendations intended primarily to bring marriages to an end with minimum hostility and distress. Yet what emerged from the policy 'process' was a piece of legislation that explicitly declared its support for marriage, and which imposed a framework of mechanisms designed to encourage couples to stay together. The first 'phase' of this thesis examines how the Act, with its dual aims of supporting and ending marriage, was reached. Initially the history of divorce law is traced. Through a series of interviews conducted with individuals involved in the Family Law Act 'process', the achievement of this 'middle-way' is then explored in detail. The second 'phase', drawing on a series of interviews conducted with individuals working with families on the ground, subsequently goes on to examine the 'street-level' response to marriage and relationship breakdown. Whilst national policy is something of a compromise between idealism and pragmatism, for those at street-level their work is unambiguously pragmatic - policy is constructed primarily in terms of a non-judgemental 'service' catering to the diversity of the modern family experience. The apparent success of this approach, particularly when compared to the 'failure' of the Family Law Act, prompts the question of whether there are lessons to be learnt for national policy. Indeed the study suggests that a new mind-set and approach akin to that operating on the ground is also needed at national level, if workable divorce law reform is to be achieved.

This study is based on joint and separate in-depth interviews with twenty (female) same sex couples who planned and had their children together in the context of their relationship. These families are one example of the increasing possibilities to live in non-traditional relationships and family forms, in contemporary Western societies. While lesbian and gay parents have a long history, there is little precedence for same sex couples setting up families 'from scratch' i.e. choosing to have children in the context of their relationship. These possibilities can be placed in the context of wider transformations of intimacy. There is widespread agreement that individualism in personal relationships has substantially increased, although opinions differ about the extent to which this individualism is essentially selfish. Lesbian parents, for example, have been portrayed as selfish individuals (Phillips, 1998) or alternatively as 'prime everyday experimenters' (Giddens, 1992), although the reality may be more nuanced than either of these polarities suggests. Overall, recent sociological research into both heterosexual and 'non-heterosexual' family lives suggests that transformations of intimacy are characterised by negotiated commitments and moral reasoning. However, to date, relatively little attention has been paid to the ways in which these themes may be modified by the presence of dependent children, particularly given the socially constructed nature of children's needs. Respondents in my study are involved in both innovative family practices and the care of dependent children. As such, they can offer new insights to the above debates. They present a radical departure from dominant conventions of heterosexual gendered family norms and the biological imperatives of reproduction. However, while working out new ways of doing family, these practices are located within deeply conventional moralities of motherhood, which leave little space within which to offer up new stories of doing family.

This research study was of the making and administration of Divorce Court Supervision Orders. Although established in England and Wales in 1958, there has been no detailed examination of supervision in domestic proceedings. In the 1979 period, when the population was obtained, 6,935 Divorce Court Supervision Orders were made. This figure has reduced to approximately 5,000 in 1985, with a total of 26,50C) ongoing orders. The population consisted of 121 children in 62 family units. Supervision could be undertaken by both probation officers or social workers. A review was undertaken of the original intentions of Divorce Court Supervision Orders as conceived by the Royal Commission on Marriage and Divorce 1951-55, and any subsequent amendments by legislation. Particular emphasis is also given to changing aspects of family law which might affect provision for children the history of social work to children in divorce proceedings was also examined. A detailed analysis was undertaken of descriptive material, on the place of children in divorce proceedings. This included research studies on the effects of divorce on children and any changes in the provision of services to parents and their children at the time of divorce proceedings. A full explanation is given of concepts such as conciliation. The original theoretical framework, placed the study of Divorce Court Supervision orders, in the wider context of the social policy of divorce proceedings. Reference is made to principles of family law and the possible relevance of a Juvenile Justice framework to the Divorce Court. In addition, Weber's concept of legitimacy was applied to the examination of Divorce Court Supervision Orders. The original research design, indicated the specific purposes of the research, which relate directly to the principles of a juvenile justice system. Details were given of the interview procedure, experience survey, identification of the validity and reliability considerations and the tests to be applied. The findings of the research are outlined in two chapters. They concentrate on the history of the families concerned, the nature of the divorce process and the details of Welfare Report recommendations. Due to the absence of any study of the process of supervision, as opposed to limited studies on the content of Divorce Court Welfare Reports, one chapter describes in some depth, the process of supervision. The analysis uses a combination of statistical tests and case examples. The use of case examples can illustrate most effectively the nature of the supervision provided. A section of the final empirical chapter addresses validity questions, by examination of what organisations a supervising officer had contact with during their involvement with a family, and the degree of continued jurisdiction of the Divorce Court over the supervision undertaken. A review of the main findings asks fundamental questions about the benevolence or control provided in domestic supervision. The final chapter places the present study, in the changing context of social work with children and their parents, involved in divorce proceedings. Child protectionism was identified as a fundamental principle, in spite of the last thirty years of reforms in family law. In addition, the final chapter questions the desirability of continued confusion over better services to divorcing parents and their children and child-protectionist based interventions by social work agencies. Parallels are drawn between the present study and other aspects of family law involving social work agencies. Throughout the research study, it was emphasised that the present research is exploratory and where appropriate, future areas of appropriate research were indicated.

This thesis examines aspects of the market for childcare that affect female labour force participation and the use of childcare. The literature review indicates that previous research on the topic has not come to any clear conclusion on the impact of the price of childcare on the labour force participation and the use of childcare of mothers of pre-school age children. I examine the market for childcare in the UK in particular. In the UK, the common complaints made about childcare include the lack of availability and its high price. I study these two topics separately in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 respectively. The lack of childcare availability is confirmed in Chapter 2 with its finding that there is a large excess demand for childcare in the UK. A topic intertwined with the availability of childcare is the impact of the price of childcare. I estimate the price elasticities with respect to labour force participation and the use of formal childcare in Chapter 3. I find that a lower price for formal childcare would have a significant effect on the labour force participation and the use of childcare of mothers of pre-school age children. The results in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 may indicate that the market for childcare has failed in the UK. The unsatisfied demand for childcare and the high price for formal childcare that is available are likely to result from a lack of providers in the formal childcare market. Hence it may be necessary to examine whether a subsidy for the producers of childcare can increase the provision of formal childcare and decrease its price to bring the childcare market to an equilibrium. In Chapter 4, I examine whether the methods of childcare financing used in Finland could provide solutions to dealing with the UK childcare problem. In particular I examine the impact of a voucher for privately produced childcare that was adopted in Finland in an experimental setting. I find that, in a market with widely available, low cost public care, the voucher for privately produced childcare has a significant effect on the labour force participation and the use of childcare working through increased availability of private childcare and its lower price.

The decline of feminism in England during the 1930s and 1940s has been the subject of numerous historical investigations. Jane Lewis (1980), Olive Banks (1986), Johanna Alberti (1989) and Martin Pugh (1990), have all considered the activities of women's societies which demanded equal rights for women, including equal pay, equal opportunities and an equal moral standard for men and women. These studies suggest that the feminist movement, understood to represent political feminist groups, was unable to capitalise on the triumph of the suffrage campaign. Although legislation enacted during the 1920s did improve the position of women in society, it was clear by the 1930s that the struggle for women's equality was far from over. As a result, the 1930s and 1940s have often been characterised as a period which witnessed one of feminism's deepest troughs, the era as a whole assumed as having an "anti-progressive and reactionary character".

This thesis examines the ways in which childbearing women living in poverty made sense of their lives and experiences. Based in the West Midlands, in an area of urban decay and major inequalities in health, the research focused on the lives of 25 women during their childbirth experience. The theoretical framework is feminist poststructuralism and throughout the study, I recognise that there is no single, unified woman's voice, and no universal solution to the problem of pregnancy and poverty. The thesis examines the different ways in which individual women experience pregnancy and poverty. The research draws on a range of ethnographic methods including interviews and participant observation. The fieldwork was undertaken over a two year period mainly through meetings with women in their own homes but also at the GP surgery and other more public places. The data discussed in the thesis illustrate the private stresses and strains of poverty related to how women cope with pregnancy and the demands of small children. I was especially interested in how childbearing women living in poverty were alike and how they were different. The women who contributed to this study shared a well developed sense of responsibility, doing what was right and putting their children first. They worked hard to be seen as respectable, and balanced the needs of their children with the demands of a life dominated by poverty. I considered the networks of support and the importance of grandmothers in some women's lives. I have considered the changing and varied relationships that women had with the men in their lives and the different ways in which they resolved conflict in their relationships. Some women were determined to go it alone and to rid themselves of the men in their lives. For over half the women in the sample, domestic violence was an everyday reality of their lives and I examined the similarities and differences in their experiences. I have also found evidence of the adverse effect of some midwives' attitudes towards these women. Beliefs based on stereotypes and prejudice meant that women living in poverty sometimes experienced less than adequate care. The thesis concludes by making recommendations for further research and for improving midwifery practice for the benefit of women.

The relationship between women's contraceptive experiences and the social relations in which they take place has been little explored to date, either empirically or theoretically. The importance of such an approach lies in its ability to perceive women's contraceptive concerns, capacities and problems, as socially and politically derived rather than as the consequence of individual/couple/group inadequacies. The position of women in society is central to this perspective. The search for a theoretical framework which allows for visibility of the social relations between women and men, and the potential for explanation, is as significant in this research process as the gathering of empirical data. A small scale qualitative study was undertaken to explore the experiences of women with sexuality and contraception. The decisions and actions women took regarding contraception, the problems they encountered and the information they received provided the focus for data collection and analysis. In—depth, semi—structured interviews with a random sample of fifty women postgraduate full—time students at the University of Warwick were conducted in the Summer Term of 1977. The sample was deliberately highly selective for motivation, access to information, alternative career possiblities and experience with contraception. The purpose of this selection was to highlight the experiences and difficulties with contraception faced by even those women in a relatively good social position, and thereby to indicate the problems in contracepting likely to affect all women. Data analysis revealed three major areas of social relations to influence the conditions in which women made decisions and took actions: first, the arena of personal sexual relationships; second, the quantity and quality of information received about sexuality and contraception; and third, the field of contraceptive health care services encountered. The sex—based division engendering social relations of male domination and female subordination were seen to be operable in each of these areas. The social and political relations of this sexual hierarchy emerged as central to the understanding of the experiences of women in the study with sexuality and contraception.

The ways in which women experience and narrate their journeys into first time motherhood is explored through a focus on narrative construction and reconstruction. The unique positioning of childbearing - at the interface between the biological and the social - both shapes expectations and renders experiences which do not conform to idealised notions of motherhood, diflicult to voice. The 17 participants in this study were all white, working women, who were expecting their first child. In depth interviews were carried out on three separate occassions, both antenatally and postnataily, over approximately a year. The longitudinal dimensions of the study enabled narrative trajectories to be collected and strategic construction and presentation of narratives to be explored. The movement in and out of the worlds of work and home was found to provide different reference points from which to make sense of, and narrate, a shifting sense of self. Narrative has not previously been used to explore women's experiences of transition to first time motherhood. Gathering women's narratives over time enabled different subjectivities to be explored and narrative layers to be discerned. The shifts made visible by this approach revealed the ways in which transition to motherhood is socially constructed and experienced within the context of differing professional and personal time frames. Within these competing time frames epistemological and ontological shifts take place. Eventually, epistemological and ontological security led women to challenge assumptions around mothering with which they may have previously collaborated. Feeling able to cope led to the voicing, retrospectively, of past difficult experiences. Narratives were reconstructed and professional constructions of 'normal' transition to motherhood, questioned. The research suggests that needs can remain unvoiced in a context where diverse mothering experiences are unjformly measured. The implications of the research for policy and practise, which is based on normative preoccupations, is considered.

This study analyses socio-legal issues pertaining to sexuality and reproduction within the context of the realities and lives of Kenyan women and in particular, Kenyan adolescent girls. The study explores the regulatory mechanisms relating to adolescent sexuality and fertility, and examines how these have been historically constructed both to limit and to open up the knowledge and choices of adolescent girls regarding their sexuality and reproduction. It examines the historical nature of the actors and the regulatory mechanisms (within the specific contexts), how these define the status of women within their families and communities, and their ability to regulate their sexuality and fertility. It unearths the intricate nature of the interrelationship between the actors and regulatory mechanisms, and develops a framework of analysis for this task. The study argues that regulation of adolescent sexuality and fertility is complex and multi-dimensional. Thus efforts at regulation must consider the nature of sexuality, its construction, the gender relationships, and the power relationships between the social actors. The study concludes that more qualitative studies that focus on the regulation of adolescent sexuality and fertility, the plural nature of law and its relationship with other non-legal forms of social regulation are crucial, if the complexity of this process is to be better understood.