Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a double stranded DNA virus that causes epithelial skin infections and persists through the life of the host by infecting neurons, where it can switch to a latent state to evade an immune response. In rare cases during primary infection or after reactivation, instead of undergoing lytic infection at the epithelial surface, it instead travels to the brain and causes herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSVE) which can have a ≥70% mortality rate if untreated. As the virus takes over its host cell, it gains control of the host cell machinery and manipulates host gene expression in order to evade the immune system and to pool its resources into the replication of the virus. One aspect of the dysregulated gene expression involves microRNAs (miRNAs). MiRNAs are short, non-coding RNAs that bind to the 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) of messenger RNAs (mRNAs), leading to translational repression of the target. Dysregulated miRNAs are often down-regulated during infection as the virus takes over, but many miRNAs have also been found to be up-regulated as well1–5. The aim of this study is to observe the full cellular miRNA changes in the context of an acute viral encephalitic infection using HSV-1, and to further characterize selected up-regulated miRNAs to determine their function in the context of the disease state. Of particular note were miR-141 and miR-200c which showed anti-apoptotic effects on neuronal cell culture and did not impact cell viability during an over-expression of the miRNAs. MiR-141, miR-183 and miR-200a expression was enriched within specific areas of the brain during infection. In addition, the potential for miR-150 to bind to a bioinformatically predicted target site within the shared 3'UTR of the HSV-1 UL18, UL19 and UL20 genes was explored. Examining the changes in expression of this class of regulatory RNAs and investigating their potential functions may yield new insight into the relationship between host and virus during infection.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) has a large linear double-stranded DNA genome in an icosahedral capsid shell, a cell-derived lipid envelope and a proteinaceous tegument layer. There are over fifty viral proteins and many host proteins identified in HSV-1 virions. The final formation of mature virus particles requires the membrane wrapping of tegumented capsids in the cytoplasm, a process termed secondary envelopment. This process involves the coordination of numerous viral and cellular proteins and results in double-membrane structures with enveloped virions contained within cellular vesicles. Mature viruses are then released through the fusion of these virion-containing vesicles and plasma membranes. This thesis describes investigation into the functions of viral glycoprotein M (gM) and the cellular Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport (ESCRT) in secondary envelopment. Firstly, it has been reported that gH/L can be efficiently internalised and targeted to the TGN by the co-expression of gM in transfection assays. In order to examine the role of gM in guiding the localisation of viral proteins in infected cells, a HSV-1 gM deletion virus (∆gM), and its revertant virus were constructed. The major phenotype demonstrated was that the absence of gM caused the internalisation of cell surface gH/L to be inhibited and higher levels of gH/L to be observed on the cell surface. Further, lower levels of gH/L were detected in purified ∆gM virions, which was in agreement with the delayed entry kinetics, smaller plaque sizes and greater replication deficits at low multiplicity of infection observed in ∆gM infected cells. Over all the results presented in this thesis demonstrate that in infected cells the efficient incorporation of gH/L into virions relies on the function of gM in HSV-1. Secondly, during HSV-1 secondary envelopment the budding and scission of the viral envelope from the host membrane share topological similarities with the formation of intraluminal vesicle in multivesicular bodies, retrovirus budding, and abscission at the end of cytokinesis, processes that require the cellular ESCRT machinery. There are four multiprotein ESCRT complexes and many associated proteins involved in their regulation. It has been previously shown that the ESCRT-III complex and a functional ATPase VPS4 are required for HSV-1 secondary envelopment, but different from the strategy utilised by HIV-1, the recruitment of ESCRT during HSV-1 infection is independent of TSG101 and/or ALIX. Data presented in this thesis demonstrate that CHMP4A/B/C proteins of the ESCRT-III complex are specifically crucial for HSV-1 secondary envelopment. Simultaneous depletion of CHMP4A/B/C proteins significantly inhibited HSV-1 replication. Ultrastructure analysis revealed that there were virtually no extracellular virions in CHMP4A/B/C depleted samples while more free capsids were observed in the cytoplasm, although the nuclear capsids and primary envelopment events appeared to be normal. In order to identify interactions between HSV-1 and ESCRT proteins, 22 HSV-1 tegument proteins were cloned and tested against a panel of ESCRT and ESCRT-associated proteins in yeast two-hydrid assays. Analysis of positive hits from yeast two-hybrid interaction screens using GST pull-down, co-immunoprecipitation and protein co-localisation assays have validated interactions of pUL47 with CC2D1A/1B, CIN85, CHMP6 and ALIX, pUL46 and pUL49 with CC2D1A/1B and CIN85, and pUL16 with CC2D1A/1B. Furthermore, the newly identified ESCRT associated proteins CC2D1A and CC2D1B have been detected in purified virions. The role of the identified ESCRT proteins in HSV-1 replication has been investigated using siRNA depletion. Unfortunately siRNA depletions of the various ESCRT candidates individually or in combinations did not show any significant effect on HSV-1 replication. Overall these data suggest that unlike HIV and other retroviruses, HSV-1 has evolved multiple parallel pathways to hijack the ESCRT machinery to facilitate its replication, particularly, through the interactions that lead directly to the recruitment of CHMP4A/B/C proteins. Disruption of some of these pathways did not prevent HSV-1 replication in tissue culture, suggesting any one potential pathway is sufficient for ESCRT recruitment to sites of HSV-1 assembly.

After initially being infected with a virus, before an adaptive immune response can be mounted, the innate immune system of a cell recognizes and responds to certain patterns present in pathogenic molecules. I studied the role of two genes—PIR1 and CD200R1—on the innate immune responses in two different mouse models of viral infection, infection with the picornavirus EMCV (encephalomyocarditis virus) and infection with HSV-1 (herpes simplex virus) in a mouse model of herpes simplex encephalitis, respectively. PIR1 is a putative RNA phosphatase that has been shown to play an important role in antiviral small RNA processing in C. elegans. It has also been shown to interact with the RIG-I-like receptor LGP2 in preliminary mammalian experiments. I sought to characterize the effect PIR1 has on the innate immune response to the virus EMCV in mice. By developing a PIR1-null mouse, I have found that the role of PIR1 in the progression of EMCV in mice is limited. However, in vitro studies show that PIR1 might play an important role in regulating foreign RNA recognition during the earliest time points post-infection. CD200R1 is an anti-inflammatory signaling molecule that is expressed on myeloidderived cells, and whose ligand is highly expressed within the central nervous system. I investigated the role of this receptor in an intracranial model of herpes simplex encephalitis. CD200R1KO mice show improved survival following direct intracranial infection with HSV. I found this increased survival can be attributed to decreased levels of viral replication in CD200R1KO compared to wild-type mice. Further investigation has shown that CD200R1 affects the signaling and upregulation of the pattern-recognition receptor TLR-2 (toll-like receptor 2), and thus CD200R1 may impact HSV-1 replication by affecting TLR2 signaling.

Le VHS-1 est un modèle très utilisé pour l’étude du cycle viral et des interactions hôte-pathogène des Herpesvirdidae, en partie dû à sa capacité de se répliquer de façon rapide dans plusieurs types cellulaires. La transcription, réplication de l’ADN et la formation des capsides de ce virus se produisent dans le noyau cellulaire. Une fois les capsides formées, elles doivent sortir du noyau pour continuer le cycle. Cependant, les capsides sont trop grandes (125 nm) pour passer à travers les pores nucléaires, dont la taille d’exclusion est de 40 nm, et elles entament alors un processus d’enveloppement dé-enveloppement à travers les deux membranes nucléaires. Le complexe LINC (de l’anglais Linker of the Nucleoskeleton and Cytoskeleton) est un complexe qui se retrouve dans les membranes nucléaires et l’espace périnucléaire. Il sert de liaison entre le noyau et le cytoplasme et, parmi ses fonctions on retrouve le maintien d’un espace périnucléaire constant, le positionnement du noyau et la transmission de forces entre le noyau et le cytoplasme. Le complexe LINC est composé par les protéines de la famille SUN et par les protéines de la famille KASH, qui interagissent physiquement l'une avec l'autre. L'implication du complexe LINC dans la propagation du virus de la pseudo-rage (PrV) a déjà été démontrée. Étant donné que le PrV fait partie de la même famille de virus que le VHS-1, notre hypothèse est que le complexe LINC joue aussi un rôle dans la propagation du VHS-1. Mes travaux démontrent que la surexpression d'une forme négative dominante de SUN2 ou sa déplétion montre un effet proviral sur la propagation du VHS-1. Ce résultat diffère de ce qui a été précédemment constaté pour le PrV en ce sens que SUN2 est antiviral pour le PrV. Ceci confirme notre hypothèse, mais démontre un scénario plus complexe qu'anticipé. / HSV-1 is widely used to study viral cycles and host-pathogen interactions of Herpesvirdidae, because it replicates quickly and efficiently in many cells types. The transcription, replication and capsid assembly of HSV-1 take place in the nucleus of the infected cell. The assembled HSV-1 capsid must exit the nucleus to continue the viral cycle. The nuclear membranes constitute a barrier for the nuclear egress of nucleocapsids (125 nm) given the exclusion size of the nuclear pores is approximately 40 nm. The nucleocapsids therefore pass through the nuclear membranes by an envelopement-deenvelopement process. The capsids acquire an envelope from the inner nuclear membrane when they are released into the perinuclear space. This primary viral envelope then fuses with the outer nuclear membrane, enabling the capsid to reach the cytoplasm. Situated between the two nuclear membranes is the linker of the nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton (LINC) complex. It is involved in the maintenance of the perinuclear space, nuclear positioning and force transmission between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The LINC complex is composed of two families of proteins, SUN and KASH proteins. SUN proteins are found in the inner nuclear membrane, their N-terminal interacts with the nucleoskeleton and the C-terminal includes a conserved domain, the SUN domain, which interacts in the perinuclear space with the conserved domain of KASH proteins. The implication of the LINC complex in the propagation of the pseudorabies virus (PrV), a member of the alphaherpesviruses, has already been demonstrated. Since PrV is part of the same family as HSV-1, we hypothesized it may also play a role in HSV-1 propagation. My work shows that overexpression of a dominant negative form of SUN2 or its depletion shows a proviral effect on HSV-1 propagation. This result differs to what has been previously found for PrV, where SUN2 displays an antiviral phenotype. This work confirms our hypothesis but reveals a more complex scenario than anticipated.

La glycoprotéine M (gM) du virus de l’herpès simplex de type 1 (VHS-1) est une protéine transmembranaire conservée parmi les Herpesviridae. C’est une protéine essentielle pour certains virus herpétiques. Cependant, gM est non essentielle quoiqu’importante pour les Alphaherpesvirinae tels que VHS-1 et VHS-2. En effet, lorsque gM est inhibée lors d’une infection au VHS-1, les titres viraux diminuent d’environ 10 fois. Lors de l’infection, gM migre tout d’abord vers les membranes nucléaires et ensuite vers le réseau trans Golgi (TGN). Il est connu que le transport de gM vers le noyau est dépendant de l’infection, puisque dans des cellules transfectées, gM s'accumule au TGN. Sachant que les interacteurs viraux connus de gM ne sont pas directement impliqués dans cette migration, une étude d’identification de nouveaux partenaires a été conduite. Cent soixante et onze protéines cellulaires potentiellement partenaires de gM ont précédemment été identifiées par BioID. Parmi celles-ci, 27 protéines ont été choisies pour validation étant donné leur implication au niveau du transport vésiculaire ou leur localisation aux membranes nucléaires. Mes travaux démontrent que l'Integral membrane protein 2B (ITM2B), une des protéines choisies pour validation, interagit et colocalise avec gM lors de l’infection. Par ailleurs, elle régule la production virale et la migration de gM vers le TGN lors d’infection. Étonnamment, cette protéine semble aussi être importante pour l’encapsidation du génome viral lors de l’infection. Finalement, nous avons montré que la production de capsides de type C, processus requérant ITM2B, serait impliqué dans la sortie nucléaire de gM. Ainsi, dans ce mémoire, nous établissons de nouvelles fonctions pour une protéine cellulaire, ITM2B, n’ayant pas d’implication auparavant décrites avec le VHS-1, durant la propagation de ce dernier. / Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) glycoprotein M (gM) is a transmembrane protein conserved among the Herpesviridae. It is an essential protein for certain herpesviruses. However, gM is nonessential although important for HSV-1 and HSV-2. Indeed, when gM is inhibited during an HSV-1 infection, the viral titers decrease by tenfold. Upon infection, gM migrates first to nuclear membranes and then to the trans-Golgi network (TGN). It is known that the transport of gM to the nucleus is dependent on the infection since, in transfected cells, gM accumulates at the TGN. Knowing that the investigated gM viral interactors are not directly involved in this migration, a recent study identified by BioID 171 cellular proteins potentially partners of gM. Among these, 27 proteins were chosen for validation for their involvement in vesicular transport or localization at the nuclear membranes. Integral membrane protein 2B (ITM2B), one of the proteins chosen for validation, seems to be important for viral production as well as the migration of gM to the TGN during infection. Moreover, we showed that ITM2B interacts and colocalizes with gM upon infection. This protein also seems to be important for encapsidation of the viral genome. Finally, we showed that the production of C-type capsids, a process requiring ITM2B, would be involved in the nuclear exit of gM. In this memoir, we establish new functions for a cellular protein, ITM2B, having no involvement previously described with HSV-1, during the propagation of the latter.

No description available.

Huntington’s disease (HD) and Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) are incurable neurodegenerative diseases that affect the central nervous system. Amyloids, highly organized protein aggregates, are a hallmark for many neurodegenerative diseases. The presence and accumulation of amyloids are toxic and constitute the major cause of neuron cell death. Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the onset and progression of these diseases. However, despite intensive research, the underlying cause remains unclear. The role of viral infection as an environmental factor in the context of neurodegenerative diseases has not received much attention. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) infection on nuclear amyloid aggregation in model cell lines of HD and SCA. The research process consists mainly of laboratory work which involved the use of several molecular techniques used in the field of biotechnology. The work comprises cultivating cells, infecting cells with HSV-1, Fluorescence microscopy, Western Blot and isolation and detection of amyloids. Western Blot is used for the analysis of specific proteins associated with protein aggregation in HD and SCA. The techniques used for detecting amyloids are Dot Blot and Antibody-staining of amyloids in cells. The results from Western Blot showed that aggregates changed in the presence of the virus. This pattern is observed for both HD and SCA1 cell lines. A big effort is done in this study to optimize Dot Blot as it is method that could be applied in every lab. Normalization of samples proved to be the most challenging part with Dot Blot. No definitive conclusions can be drawn from the Dot Blot results as reproducibility and sensitivity were lacking. This work addresses some of the difficulties encountered when working with detection of amyloids especially Dot Blot. Antibody-staining of amyloids showed that amyloids were formed in the presence of virus in comparison to non-infected. To conclude, aggregates changed, and amyloids were formed in the presence of virus. These results point to the fact that HSV-1 infection could be involved in the process of nuclear amyloid aggregation. The data presented in this thesis will need further investigation and characterization to identify the precise role of viral-induced amyloid formation in HD and SCA patient cells. / Huntingtons sjukdom (HD) och Spinocerebellära ataxier (SCA) är obotliga neurodegenerativa sjukdomar som påverkar det centrala nervsystemet. Amyloid, proteinaggregat som har en viss konformation är ett kännemärke för många neurodegenerativa sjukdomar. Ackumulering av dessa amyloider är toxiskt och är den främsta orsaken till att nervceller dör. Både genetiska faktorer och miljöfaktorer bidrar till uppkomsten och progressionen av dessa sjukdomar. Trots intensiv forskning är den bakomliggande orsaken emellertid fortfarande oklar. Virusinfektion som en potentiell miljöfaktor har i detta sammanhang inte fått mycket uppmärksamhet. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka effekterna av Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) infektion på amyloid aggregering i modellcellinjer av HD och SCA. Forskningsarbetet bestod i huvudsakligen av experimentellt arbete med hjälp av flera molekylära tekniker inom bioteknikområdet som cell odling, infektering av celler med HSV-1, fluorescensmikroskopi, Western Blot och isolering och detektion av amyloider. Western Blot användes for att analysera specifika proteiner associerade med protein aggregering i HD och SCA. Amyloider detekterades med Dot Blot och med antikroppar specifika för amyloider. Resultat från Western Blot visade att amyloiderna förändras i virusinfekterade celler. Detta mönster observerades i både HD and SCA1 cellinjer. En stor bemöda görs i denna studie för att optimera Dot Blot eftersom det är en metod som kan användas i alla laboratorier. Normalisering visade sig vara det svåraste med detektion av amyloider. Inga definitiva slutsatser kan dras från dessa experiment, eftersom reproducerbarhet och känslighet var bristande. Detta arbete tar upp några av de svårigheter som uppstod vid arbetande med detektion av amyloider speciellt Dot Blot. Detektion av amyloider med antikropp visade att amyloider bildades till stor utsträckning i infekterade cellinjer i jämförelse med icke-infekterade. Sammanfattningsvis, amyloider förändrades och amyloider bildades i närvaro av virus. Dessa resultat indikerar på att HSV-1 infektion skulle kunna vara involverad i processen av amyloid aggregering. De presenterade uppgifter i detta examensarbete är preliminära och behöver följas upp med ytterligare studier för att identifiera virusens exakta roll i amyloid bildning i HD och SCA patient celler.

The development of safe and efficient gene delivery systems in pluripotent human embryonic stem cells (hESc) is essential to realising their full potential for basic and clinical research. The purpose of this study was to develop an efficient, non-integrating gene expression system in pluripotent hESc using human artificial chromosomes (HAC). Similar to endogenous chromosomes, HAC are capable of gene expression, replication and segregation during cell division. Unlike retroviral-mediated gene delivery vectors, HAC do not integrate into the host genome and can encompass large genomic regions for the delivery of multiple genes. Despite the advantages HAC offer, their use has been limited due to laborious cloning procedures and poor transfection efficiencies, and thus only studied in immortalised and tumour-derived human cell lines. In this study, the high transduction efficiency of herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) amplicons was utilised to overcome the described difficulties and delivered HAC vectors into pluripotent hESc. Analysis of stable hESc clones showed that de novo gene-expressing HAC were present at high frequencies ranging from 10-70% of metaphases analysed, without integrating into the genome. The established HAC contained an active centromere, and were stably maintained without integration or loss in the absence of selection for 90 days. Stable HAC-containing hESc clones retained their pluripotency as demonstrated by neuronal differentiation, in vitro germ layer and teratoma formation assays. HAC gene expression persisted, with some variation, post-differentiation in the various deriving cell types. This is the first report of successful de novo HAC formation in hESc for gene expression studies. These findings show potential for delivering high-capacity genomic constructs safely and efficiently into pluripotent cells for the purpose of genetic manipulation and ultimately patient-specific somatic gene therapy.

Development of safe and efficient approaches for gene delivery in human embryonic stem cells (hESc) and particularly in human induced pluripotent stem (hiPS) cells, which can be derived in a person-specific manner, is considered to be imperative for harnessing their full potential in both the basic and applied research. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of human artificial chromosome (HAC) for gene delivery and expression in hESc and hiPS cells. HAC offers many potential advantages including the provision for carrying large genes with corresponding regulatory elements to obtain long-term regulated gene expression. In addition, they can replicate and segregate independently without integration into the host cell genome. To develop HAC in hiPS cells, the first part of the study was aimed at generating hiPS cells utilising the Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)-1 amplicon system. With the use of EBNA-1/OriP retention elements incorporated into the HSV-1 amplicon vectors, hiPS cells completely free of vector and transgenes sequences were successfully derived from human embryonic fibroblasts. The hiPS cells exhibited proliferation and differentiation potential similar to that of hESc. In the second part of the study, development of HAC in hESc and hiPS cells was assessed by utilising the HSV-1 amplicon system to deliver the HAC DNA. Analysis of the hESc confirmed the presence of functional HAC which replicated the behaviour of the host chromosomes. Additionally, HAC generation did not lead to impairment in the developmental potential and pluripotency of hESc. The hiPS cells supported HAC at low frequency but DNA also integrated into the host chromosomes. The HAC system, therefore, needs further refinements to improve the frequency of HAC formation and reduce the chromosomal integration of HAC constructs in hiPS cells. Overall, these findings provide a simple and safe way of pluripotency induction and genetic modification of pluripotent stem cells using the HSV-1 amplicon system and represent an important advance towards patient specific gene and cell therapy.

No description available.