Density functional theory (DFT) calculations of polyethylene (PE) HVDC cable insulation have been performed for systems containing four different chemical impurities: acetophenone, cumene, $\alpha$-methyl styrene and $\alpha$-cumyl alcohol. Systems were generated by molecular dynamics (MD) equilibration at four different temperatures relevant for cable insulation applications: 277 K, 293 K, 343 K and 363 K. With the goal of gaining better measure of variations in hole and electron traps energies, four initial configurations were also stochastically generated at each temperature, which yielded four different final configurations after equilibration. The counterpoise correction scheme was implemented for DFT calculations, by distributing ghost atoms thought any empty pockets of space in between the PE chains. The PBE functional was selected for DFT simulations. The resulting band gaps were in agreement with those of earlier GGA-based studies, and thus lower by 3 eV than empirical band gaps. For all impurities, the first HOMO state and the first two LUMO states were generally located on the impurity molecule, forming one hole trap and two electron traps, but certain configurations generated increased electron trap numbers, or eliminated hole traps. No dependence could be derived between temperature and trap depth for either electron or hole traps. Mean electron trap energies were largely in agreement with results from earlier studies, they were deepest for acetophenone, and they varied by as much as 0.6 eV between different configurations. Hole traps are universally shallow and vary by up to 0.7 eV between configurations, and are similar in depth for all impurities. Results suggest that electron trap depths correlate with the presence of molecular features such as oxygen atoms and conjugated double bonds. The dependence of trap depth on the spatial configuration of the impurity molecule suggests that results could be improved by more precise quantum mechanical treatment of the dynamics of the impurity. / Täthetsfunktionalteori (DFT) har använts för beräkningar av isolering till HVDC kablar som består av polyeten innehållande fyra olika kemiska orenheter: acetofenon, kumen, alfa-metylstyren och alfa-kumylalkohol. System att studera genererades genom molekylärdynamisk ekvilibrering vid fyra olika temperaturer relevanta för tillämning till kabelisolering: 277 K, 293 K, 343 K och 363 K. För att få ett mått på de variationer som existerar i energierna på hål- och elektronfällor genererades stokastiskt fyra initialkonfigurationer vid varje temperatur, vilket fyra olika konfigurationer efter relaxering. Motviktskorrigering implementerades för DFT-beräkningar, genom att fördela "spökatomer" i de tomrum som bildas mellan PE-kedjorna i den amorfa fasen. PBE-funktionalen användes för DFT-simuleringar. De resulterande bandgapen stämde överens med tidigare GGA-baserade studier, och var därmed runt 3 eV smalare än empiriskt uppmätta bandgap. För alla orenheter var det första HOMO-tillståndet och de två första LUMO-tillstånden i allmänhet placerade på orenheten, vilket resulterade i en hålfälla och två elektronfällor, men vissa konfigurationer gav upphov till fler elektronfällor, eller eliminerade hålfällorna. Inget samband kunde härledas mellan temperaturen och djupet på fällorna för vare sig elektron- eller hålfällor. Medelvärdet på elektronfällornas energier överensstämde till stor del med resultat från tidigare studier, energierna var högst för acetofenon, och de varierade med så mycket som 0,6 eV mellan olika konfigurationer. Hålfällorna var genomgående grunda, varierade med upp till 0,7 eV mellan olika konfigurationer, och hade likartat djup för alla orenheter. Resultaten indikerar att variationerna elektronfällornas medeldjup uppstår på grund av orenheternas olika molekylära uppbyggnad: förekomst av syreatomer och konjugerade dubbelbindningar i orenheterna leder till djupare elektronfällor. Det faktum att djupet på elektron- och hålfällor varierar mellan olika rumsliga konfigurationer av av orenheten och polyetenstrukturen ger en antydan om att resultaten kan komma att förbättras om dynamiken hos orenheten simuleras med mer exakta kvantmekanisk metoder.

Since its first introduction in 1998, extruded direct current (DC) cable technology has been growing rapidly leading to many cable system installations with operation voltages up to 320 kV. Cable manufacturers invest heavily on technology development in this field and today extruded DC cable systems for operation voltages as high as 525 kV are commercially available. The electrical field distribution in electrical insulation under DC voltage is mainly determined by the conduction physics, therefore a good understanding of the DC conduction is necessary. In case of Cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) insulation, the presence of the peroxide decomposition products (PDP) is believed to influence its electrical properties. The PDP are volatile and therefore they may diffuse out of the samples during sample preparation and testing. Besides, the morphology of the XLPE is known to evolve over time even at moderate temperatures. Since the material may change during preparation, storage and even measurement, the procedure during all stages of the study should be chosen carefully. In this work, the physics of the dielectric response and conduction in XLPE is briefly discussed. The existing measurement techniques relevant to characterization of DC conduction in XLPE insulation materials are reviewed. The procedure for high field DC conductivity measurement is evaluated and recommendations for obtaining reproducible results are listed. Two types of samples are studied, i.e. thick press molded samples and thick plaque samples obtained from the insulation of in-factory extruded cables. For press molded samples, the influence of the press film used during press molding and the effect of heat-treatment on the electrical properties of XLPE and LDPE are studied. High field DC conductivity of XLPE plaque samples is measured with a dynamic electrode temperature to simulate the standard thermal cycles. Investigations show that using PET film during press molding leads to higher apparent DC conductivity and dielectric losses when compared to using aluminum foil. The influence of heat-treatment is different depending on the press film. High field DC conductivity measurements and chemical composition measurement of samples obtained from the cable insulation are in good agreement with the results obtained from the full scale measurements. Finally a non-monotonic dependence of apparent DC conductivity to temperature of some samples pressed with PET film is discovered which to the author’s best of knowledge has not been previously reported in the literature. / Sedan det första införandet i 1998 har extruderad likspänning (DC) kabeltekniken vuxit snabbt och har lett till många existerande kabelsysteminstallationer med driftspänningar upp till 320 kV. Kabeltillverkare investerar kraftigt i teknikutveckling inom detta område och idag finns extruderade DC kabelsystemen tillgängliga för driftspänningar så höga som 525 kV. Elektrisk fältfördelning i isolationsmaterial under hög DC spänning, beror framförallt på materialets elektriska ledningsfysik, därför är en bra förståelse av DC ledningsförmåga nödvändig. Isolationsmaterial av tvärbunden polyeten (PEX) innehåller tvärbindningsrestgaser som tros påverka materialets elektriska egenskaper. Restgaserna är flyktiga och kan diffundera bort från proven under preparering och mätning, även under måttliga temperaturer. PEX materialets morfologi ändras även med tiden. Med tanke på att materialet kan ändras under provpreparering, lagring och även vid mätning, så måste samtliga steg ovan väljas mycket försiktigt. I detta arbete diskuteras grundläggande fysik för dielektrisk polarisering och ledningsförmåga i PEX-isolation tillsammans med granskning av existerande mätteknik relevant för karakterisering av ledningsförmåga i PEX. Procedurer för mätning av DC ledningsförmåga under höga elektriska fält är undersökta och rekommendationer för reproducerbar mätningar är framtagna. Två typer av prover är studerade, tjocka pressade plattor och tjocka plattor som ursvarvats från kommersiell tillverkade högspänningskablar. För pressade plattor, studerades effekten utav press-filmens påverkan på de elektriska egenskaperna hos PEX och LDPE. Påverkan av värmebehandling på DC ledningsförmåga av PEX plattor studerades också. Slutligen studerades DC ledningsförmåga av PEX och LDPE plattor under höga DC fält och med dynamisk temperatur på elektroderna med syftet att efterlikna standardvärmecyklingar. Undersökningarna visade att användningen av PET filmer under pressning av plattor ledde till högre DC ledningsförmåga och högre dielektriska förluster i proven i jämförelse med användning av aluminiumfolie. Påverkan utav värmebehandling är olika beroende på typ av film som används pressningen. Det finns en stark korrelation mellan resultaten från DC konduktivitet och kemisk komposition mätningar från plattor skaffat från kabelisolation och resultaten från fullskaliga kabelmätningar. Slutligen, upptäcktes ett icke monotont beroende av DC konduktivitet hos PEX och LDPE plattor på temperatur som tidigare inte rapporterats i litteraturen. / <p>QC 20160125</p>

In the search for green energy to combat climatechange, a shift from conventional energy sources such as coal,oil, and nuclear towards Renewable Energy Sources (RES) isneeded. This shift poses a threat to the stability of the powergrids as RES do not contribute with rotating mass in the system.A lack of rotating mass, or in other words inertia, jeopardizesthe ability of power systems to counteract large disturbances.Frequency Containment Reserves (FCR) units are responsiblefor controlling the frequency in power systems by regulatingthe balance between the generated and consumed power. If thefrequency deviates outside of the defined range from the nominalvalue, it can lead to system separation, blackouts, and systemequipment damage. The frequency deviations are faster in lowinertia systems, making it more difficult for FCR to keep thefrequency within accepted ranges. Hydro turbines are often usedas FCR units, but additional means of support could be neededfor low inertia systems. Viable support could be battery systems.This project investigates the change towards low inertia and thepossible implementation of a battery system as fast step-wisepower support with a frequency trigger. The investigation is donethrough case studies of simulated system models in Matlab andSimulink. / I jakten på grön energi för att bekämpa klimatförändringarna behövs en övergång från konventionella energikällor som kol, olja och kärnkraft mot förnyelsebara energikällor. Denna övergång utgör ett hot mot kraftnätens stabilitet då förnyelsebara energikällor inte bidrar med roterande massa. Brist på roterande massa eller med andra ord tröghet äventyrar kraftsystemens förmåga att motverka stora störningar. Frequency Containment Reserves (FCR) är system som aktivt arbetar med att styra frekvensen i kraftsystemet genom att reglera balansen mellan den producerade och konsumerade effekten. Om detta misslyckas och frekvensen avviker för mycket från den nominella frekvensen kan detta leda till systemseparation, strömavbrott eller skada hos systemkomponenter. I ett system med låg tröghet blir frekvensavvikelserna snabbare. Detta gör det svårare att använda sig av FCR för att hålla frekvensen inom accepterade intervall. Vattenkraftverk används ofta som FCR enheter, men för system med låg tröghet kan ytterliggare stöd behövas. Ett möjligt effektstöd kan vara batterisystem. Detta projekt undersöker förändringen till lägre tröghet i ett kraftsystem och möjlig implementering av ett batterisystem med ett snabbt stegsvar för effektstöd, vilket aktiveras vid en förbestämd frekvens. Undersökningen görs genom studier av specifika fall med en linjäriserad modell av ett kraftsystemet, lerade i Matlab och Simulink. / Kandidatexjobb i elektroteknik 2021, KTH, Stockholm

In this bachelor thesis, cable fault locators are studied for use on the overhead electrode lines in the HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) Light project Caprivi Link. The cable fault locators studied operates with the principle of travelling waves, where a pulse is sent in the tested conductor. The time difference is measured from the injection moment to the reflection is received. If the propagation speed of the pulse is known the distance to the fault can be calculated. This type of unit is typically referred to as a TDR (Time Domain Reflectometer). The study is performed as a computer simulation where a simplified model of a TDR unit is created and applied to an electrode line model by using PSCAD/EMTDC. Staged faults of open circuit and ground fault types are placed at three distances on the electrode line model, different parameters of the TDR units such as pulse width and pulse amplitude along with its connection to the electrode line are then studied and evaluated. The results of the simulations show that it is possible to detect faults of both open circuit and ground fault types with a suitable TDR unit. Ground faults with high resistance occurring at long distances can be hard to detect due to low reflection amplitudes from the injections. This problem can somewhat be resolved with a function that lets the user compare an old trace of a “healthy” line with the new trace. The study shows that most of the faults can be detected and a distance to the fault can be calculated within an accuracy of ± 250 m. The pulse width of the TDR needs to be at least 10 μs, preferable 20 μs to deliver high enough energy to the fault to create a detectable reflection. The pulse amplitude seams to be of less significance in this simulation, although higher pulse amplitude is likely to be more suitable in a real measurement due to the higher energy delivered to the fault. The Hipotronics TDR 1150 is a unit that fulfil these requirements and should therefore be able to work as a line fault locator on the electrode line.

Recent issues such as priority access of renewable resources recommended by European energy directives and increase the electricity trading among countries lead to new requirements on the operation and expansion of transmission grids. Since AC grid expansions are limited by legislative issues and long distance transmission capacity, there is a considerable attention drawn to application of HVDC transmission grids on top of, or in complement to, existing AC power systems. The secure operation of HVDC grids requires a hierarchical control system. In HVDC grids, the primary control action to deal with power or DC voltage deviations is communication-free and local. In addition to primary control, the higher supervisory control actions are needed to guarantee the optimal operation of HVDC grids. However, the implementation of supervisory control functions is linked to the arrangement of system operators; i.e. an individual HVDC operator (central structure) or sharing tasks among AC system operators (distributed structure). This thesis presents distributed control of an HVDC grid. To this end, three possible supervisory functions are investigated; coordination of power injection set-points, DC slack bus selection and network topology identification. In this thesis, all three functions are first studied for the central structure. For the distributed solution, two algorithms based on Alternating Direction Method of Multipliers (ADMM) and Auxiliary Problem Principle (APP) are adopted to solve the coordination of power injection. For distributed selection of DC slack bus, the choice of parameters for quantitative ranking of converters is important. These parameters should be calculated based on local measurements if distributed decision is desired. To this end, the short circuit capacity of connected AC grid and power margin of converters are considered. To estimate the short circuit capacity as one of the required selection parameters, the result shows that the recursive least square algorithm can be very efficiently used. Besides, it is possible to intelligently use a naturally occurring droop response in HVDC grids as a local measurement for this estimation algorithm. Regarding the network topology, a two-stage distributed algorithm is introduced to use the abstract information about the neighbouring substation topology to determine the grid connectivity. / <p>QC 20170306</p>

Dans le cadre du programme de croissance Européen 2020, la commission européenne a mis en place officiellement un chemin à long terme pour une économie à faible émission de carbone, en aspirant une réduction d’au moins 80% des émissions de gaz à effet de serre, d’ici 2050. Répondre à ces exigences ambitieuses, impliquera un changement majeur de paradigme, et notamment en ce qui concerne les infrastructures du réseau électrique. Les percées dans la technologie des semi-conducteurs et les avancées avec les nouvelles topologies d’électronique de puissance et leurs contrôle-commandes, ont contribué à l’impulsion donnée au processus en cours de réaliser un tel SuperGrid. Une percée technologique majeure a eu lieu en 2003, avec le convertisseur modulaire multi-niveaux (MMC ou M2C), présenté par le professeur Marquardt, et qui est actuellement la topologie d’électronique de puissance la plus adaptée pour les stations HVDC. Cependant, cette structure de conversion introduit également un certain nombre de défis relativement complexes tels que les courants “additionnels” qui circulent au sein du convertisseur, entrainant des pertes supplémentaires et un fonctionnement potentiellement instable. Ce projet de thèse vise à concevoir des stratégies de commande “de haut niveau” pour contrôler le MMC adaptées pour les applications à courant continue-haute tension (HVDC), dans des conditions de réseau AC équilibrés et déséquilibrés. La stratégie de commande optimale identifiée est déterminée via une approche pour la conception du type “de haut en bas”, inhérente aux stratégies d’optimisation, où la performance souhaitée du convertisseur MMC donne la stratégie de commande qui lui sera appliquée. Plus précisément, la méthodologie d’optimisation des multiplicateurs de Lagrange est utilisée pour calculer le signal minimal de référence du courant de circulation du MMC dans son repère naturel. / Following Europe’s 2020 growth program, the Energy Roadmap 2050 launched by the European Commission (EC) has officially set a long term path for a low-carbon economy, assuming a reduction of at least 80% of greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2050. Meeting such ambitious requirements will imply a major change in paradigm, including the electricity grid infrastructure as we know it.The breakthroughs in semi-conductor technology and the advances in power electronics topologies and control have added momentum to the on-going process of turning the SuperGrid into a reality. Perhaps the most recent breakthrough occurred in 2003, when Prof. Marquardt introduced the Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC or M2C) which is now the preferred power electronic topology that is starting to be used in VSC-HVDC stations. It does however, introduce a number of rather complex challenges such as “additional” circulating currents within the converter itself, causing extra losses and potentially unstable operation. In addition, the MMC will be required to properly balance the capacitive energy stored within its different arms, while transferring power between the AC and DC grids that it interfaces.The present Thesis project aimed to design adequate “high-level” MMC control strategies suited for HVDC applications, under balanced and unbalanced AC grid conditions. The resulting control strategy is derived with a “top-to-bottom” design approach, inherent to optimization strategies, where the desired performance of the MMC results in the control scheme that will be applied. More precisely, the Lagrange multipliers optimization methodology is used to calculate the minimal MMC circulating current reference signals in phase coordinates, capable of successfully regulating the capacitive arm energies of the converter, while reducing losses and voltage fluctuations, and effectively decoupling any power oscillations that would take place in the AC grid and preventing them from propagating into the DC grid.

The Brazilian transmission system covers a large area, with a high concentration of consumer centres in the Southeast region and abundant hydro generation in the North. To connect these regions, some of the transmission lines might reach 2500 km length, creating a challenging situation. In this context, system planners have been defining the use of HVDC systems as the most feasible choice of transmission investment. It is so, recognized that the connections of power plants in the Northern region to the load centres in the Southeast will require a significant number of bipoles and, until the present moment, all the operational and planned HVDC lines are based on the converter technology known as LCC (Line Commutated Converter) and consequently subject to commutation failure. Currently, the Brazilian system has four LCC bipoles, with two other bipoles under construction. Although the Southeast grid is strong, the connection of two additional bipoles is a concern as the interaction between these inverters may cause strong effects on one another, a phenomenon known as multi-infeed interaction. In such a situation, the assessment of the system operation, possible outages and possible mitigation methods are of paramount importance. This document presents a different methodology for the analysis of the multi-infeed system mentioned and focuses on its validation by analysing operation under normal conditions and with the implementation of established mitigation methods. The investigation was carried out with EMT, power flow, short-circuit and electromechanical softwares in a very large AC system composed by 100 buses on EMT and full Brazilian system on the rest. The effects of faults were analysed and the areas containing the buses where a fault leads to multiple commutation failures were identified. / O sistema de brasileiro de transmissão abrange uma área ampla, com uma alta concentração de consumo na região Sudeste e abundante geração hidrelétrica no Norte. Para conectar essas regiões, algumas das linhas de transmissão podem alcançar comprimentos de 2500 km, criando uma situação desafiadora. Neste contexto, os planejadores de sistemas têm definido o uso de sistemas HVDC como a escolha mais viável de investimento em transmissão. É então reconhecido que as conexões de usinas na região Norte aos centros consumidores no Sudeste exigirão um número significativo de bipolos e, até o momento presente, todas as linhas HVDC operacionais e planejadas são baseadas na tecnologia de conversão conhecida como LCC (Line Commutated Converter) e consequentemente sujeito a falha de comutação. Atualmente, o sistema brasileiro tem quatro bipolos LCC, com outros dois bipolos em construção. Embora a rede do Sudeste seja considerada forte, a conexão de dois bipolos adicionais é uma preocupação, pois a interação entre esses inversores pode causar efeitos danosos uns sobre os outros, um fenômeno conhecido como interação multi-infeed. Em tal situação, a avaliação da operação do sistema, possíveis interrupções e possíveis métodos de mitigação são de suma importância. Este documento apresenta uma metodologia diferente para a análise do sistema multi-infeed mencionado e foca em sua validação, analisando a operação em condições normais e com a implementação de métodos de mitigação conhecidos. A investigação foi realizada com softwares EMT, de curto circuito, fluxo de potência e estabilidade eletromecância em um sistema CA muito grande composto por 100 barras em EMT e sistema brasileiro completo no resto. Os efeitos das falhas foram analisados e as áreas que contêm as barras onde uma falha leva a múltiplas falhas de comutação foram identificadas.

A tendência mundial de crescimento do consumo de energia elétrica requer novas unidades de geração para suprimento de demanda. Além disso, há preocupação na diversificação da matriz energética, e as fontes de energia nem sempre são de fácil acesso aos grandes centros de consumo, o que traz a problemática do transporte de energia elétrica. Sistemas em Corrente Alternada (CA) têm sido empregados na transmissão de energia há décadas, e atualmente os sistemas de transmissão em Corrente Contínua (CC) mostram-se uma opção vantajosa tanto na transmissão ponto a ponto por longas distâncias, quanto para múltiplos terminais, integrando diferentes fontes geradoras de energia. Os conhecidos sistemas de transmissão CC em alta tensão baseados em conversores comutados pela rede têm aplicações consolidadas ao redor do mundo, enquanto que, para a emergente tecnologia dos conversores comutados por largura de pulso (PWM), poucos estudos mostram seu desempenho frente transitórios na rede. A exposição do extenso perímetro das linhas de transmissão às condições geográficas e climatológicas motiva esta pesquisa perante a incidência de impulsos atmosféricos, tendo em vista que a maior parte dos estudos têm avaliado transitórios eletromagnéticos ocasionados por faltas. Para tanto, uma revisão bibliográfica sobre o tema de pesquisa é apresentada, com a descrição dos principais componentes de sistemas HVDC, a análise de sistemas VSC-HVDC, utilizando conversores dois níveis, frente transitórios eletromagnéticos provocados pela incidência direta de descargas atmosféricas tanto na rede CA quanto no elo CC, utilizando o software comercial PSCAD/EMTD para a simulação e modelagem dos para-raios de Óxido de Zinco (ZnO), linha de transmissão, conversores e atuação do controle. / The worlwide trend of growing electricity consumption requires new generation units to supply demand. In addition, there is concern in the diversification of the energy matrix, and energy sources are not always easily accessible to large consumption centers, which brings the problem of transportation of electric energy. Alternating Current (AC) systems have been used in power transmission for decades, and Direct Current (DC) transmission systems are now an advantageous option in both point-to-point transmission over long distances and across multiple terminals, integrating different sources of energy. Known High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission systems based on Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) have consolidated applications around the world, while for the emerging technology of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) converters, few studies show their network transient performance. The exposition of the extensive perimeter of the transmission lines to the geographic and climatological conditions motivates this research considering the incidence of atmospheric impulses, and that the major part of the studies available have evaluated electromagnetic transients caused by faults. In this context, a literature review on the research topic is presented, with the description of the main components of HVDC systems, the analysis of VSC-based HVDC (VSC-HVDC) systems, using twolevel converters, electromagnetic transients caused by the direct incidence of atmospheric discharges in both the AC network, and in the CC link. The analysis uses the commercial software PSCAD/EMTD for the simulation and modeling of ZnO arresters, transmission line, converters and control actuation.

A tendência mundial de crescimento do consumo de energia elétrica requer novas unidades de geração para suprimento de demanda. Além disso, há preocupação na diversificação da matriz energética, e as fontes de energia nem sempre são de fácil acesso aos grandes centros de consumo, o que traz a problemática do transporte de energia elétrica. Sistemas em Corrente Alternada (CA) têm sido empregados na transmissão de energia há décadas, e atualmente os sistemas de transmissão em Corrente Contínua (CC) mostram-se uma opção vantajosa tanto na transmissão ponto a ponto por longas distâncias, quanto para múltiplos terminais, integrando diferentes fontes geradoras de energia. Os conhecidos sistemas de transmissão CC em alta tensão baseados em conversores comutados pela rede têm aplicações consolidadas ao redor do mundo, enquanto que, para a emergente tecnologia dos conversores comutados por largura de pulso (PWM), poucos estudos mostram seu desempenho frente transitórios na rede. A exposição do extenso perímetro das linhas de transmissão às condições geográficas e climatológicas motiva esta pesquisa perante a incidência de impulsos atmosféricos, tendo em vista que a maior parte dos estudos têm avaliado transitórios eletromagnéticos ocasionados por faltas. Para tanto, uma revisão bibliográfica sobre o tema de pesquisa é apresentada, com a descrição dos principais componentes de sistemas HVDC, a análise de sistemas VSC-HVDC, utilizando conversores dois níveis, frente transitórios eletromagnéticos provocados pela incidência direta de descargas atmosféricas tanto na rede CA quanto no elo CC, utilizando o software comercial PSCAD/EMTD para a simulação e modelagem dos para-raios de Óxido de Zinco (ZnO), linha de transmissão, conversores e atuação do controle. / The worlwide trend of growing electricity consumption requires new generation units to supply demand. In addition, there is concern in the diversification of the energy matrix, and energy sources are not always easily accessible to large consumption centers, which brings the problem of transportation of electric energy. Alternating Current (AC) systems have been used in power transmission for decades, and Direct Current (DC) transmission systems are now an advantageous option in both point-to-point transmission over long distances and across multiple terminals, integrating different sources of energy. Known High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission systems based on Line-Commutated Converter (LCC) have consolidated applications around the world, while for the emerging technology of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) converters, few studies show their network transient performance. The exposition of the extensive perimeter of the transmission lines to the geographic and climatological conditions motivates this research considering the incidence of atmospheric impulses, and that the major part of the studies available have evaluated electromagnetic transients caused by faults. In this context, a literature review on the research topic is presented, with the description of the main components of HVDC systems, the analysis of VSC-based HVDC (VSC-HVDC) systems, using twolevel converters, electromagnetic transients caused by the direct incidence of atmospheric discharges in both the AC network, and in the CC link. The analysis uses the commercial software PSCAD/EMTD for the simulation and modeling of ZnO arresters, transmission line, converters and control actuation.

Dans le cadre du programme de croissance Européen 2020, la commission européenne a mis en place officiellement un chemin à long terme pour une économie à faible émission de carbone, en aspirant une réduction d’au moins 80% des émissions de gaz à effet de serre, d’ici 2050. Répondre à ces exigences ambitieuses, impliquera un changement majeur de paradigme, et notamment en ce qui concerne les infrastructures du réseau électrique. Les percées dans la technologie des semi-conducteurs et les avancées avec les nouvelles topologies d’électronique de puissance et leurs contrôle-commandes, ont contribué à l’impulsion donnée au processus en cours de réaliser un tel SuperGrid. Une percée technologique majeure a eu lieu en 2003, avec le convertisseur modulaire multi-niveaux (MMC ou M2C), présenté par le professeur Marquardt, et qui est actuellement la topologie d’électronique de puissance la plus adaptée pour les stations HVDC. Cependant, cette structure de conversion introduit également un certain nombre de défis relativement complexes tels que les courants “additionnels” qui circulent au sein du convertisseur, entrainant des pertes supplémentaires et un fonctionnement potentiellement instable. Ce projet de thèse vise à concevoir des stratégies de commande “de haut niveau” pour contrôler le MMC adaptées pour les applications à courant continue-haute tension (HVDC), dans des conditions de réseau AC équilibrés et déséquilibrés. La stratégie de commande optimale identifiée est déterminée via une approche pour la conception du type “de haut en bas”, inhérente aux stratégies d’optimisation, où la performance souhaitée du convertisseur MMC donne la stratégie de commande qui lui sera appliquée. Plus précisément, la méthodologie d’optimisation des multiplicateurs de Lagrange est utilisée pour calculer le signal minimal de référence du courant de circulation du MMC dans son repère naturel. / Following Europe’s 2020 growth program, the Energy Roadmap 2050 launched by the European Commission (EC) has officially set a long term path for a low-carbon economy, assuming a reduction of at least 80% of greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2050. Meeting such ambitious requirements will imply a major change in paradigm, including the electricity grid infrastructure as we know it.The breakthroughs in semi-conductor technology and the advances in power electronics topologies and control have added momentum to the on-going process of turning the SuperGrid into a reality. Perhaps the most recent breakthrough occurred in 2003, when Prof. Marquardt introduced the Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC or M2C) which is now the preferred power electronic topology that is starting to be used in VSC-HVDC stations. It does however, introduce a number of rather complex challenges such as “additional” circulating currents within the converter itself, causing extra losses and potentially unstable operation. In addition, the MMC will be required to properly balance the capacitive energy stored within its different arms, while transferring power between the AC and DC grids that it interfaces.The present Thesis project aimed to design adequate “high-level” MMC control strategies suited for HVDC applications, under balanced and unbalanced AC grid conditions. The resulting control strategy is derived with a “top-to-bottom” design approach, inherent to optimization strategies, where the desired performance of the MMC results in the control scheme that will be applied. More precisely, the Lagrange multipliers optimization methodology is used to calculate the minimal MMC circulating current reference signals in phase coordinates, capable of successfully regulating the capacitive arm energies of the converter, while reducing losses and voltage fluctuations, and effectively decoupling any power oscillations that would take place in the AC grid and preventing them from propagating into the DC grid.