Aux confins du Sahel et du Sahara mauritanien, le plateau du Tagant (300 a 500 m. d'altitude) est un milieu de transition. Se rencontrent ici les influences d'Afrique du nord et d'Afrique noire. La crise climatique qui sévit maintenant depuis 23 ans a profondément bouleversé le fragile équilibre de ce biotope. Le système traditionnel d'occupation de l'espace, déjà fortement déstabilisé par les changements socio-économiques du 20eme siècle, achève de se déstructurer. Les nomades en se sédentarisant n'ont pas conscience des dommages qu'ils font subir a leur environnement. Des exemples précis et concrets sont étudiés plus particulièrement : Boumdeid, la Tamourt en Na'aj et une zone de brousse Tigree

A Corrente do Brasil (CB) se origina na bifurcac¸ ao da Corrente Sul Equatorial (BiCSE), e flui para o sul ao longo da margem continental brasileira. Inferencias sobre a origem e organizac¸ ao da CB sao baseadas em padroes de grande escala associados `a estrutura da BiCSE. H´a carencia de detalhes no que tange `a rica atividade de mesoescala possivelmente envolvida em seu processo de formac¸ ao. Sao fartas as evidencias de meandros e v´ ortices da CB na literatura ao largo das costas sudeste e sul do Brasil. A costa leste, que abriga seu s´tio de origem, permanece ainda bastante desconhecida neste ponto de vista. Motivamo-nos por esta lacuna de informac¸ oes a conduzir este trabalho. Optamos primeiramente por estimar um cen´ario m´edio do escoamento geostr ´ofico associado a BiCSE e origem da CB no per´odo de verao, atrav´es de um conjunto de dados termohalinos climatol´ogicos. Objetivamos por fim, obter uma descric¸ ao sin´ otica do escoamento geostr´ofico associado ao s´tio de origem da CB. Para tanto, dispomos de um conjunto de dados composto por amostragem quase-sin´ otica de dados termohalinos (via CTD) e de velocidade (via ADCP de casco) simultaneamente, entre os paralelos de 10S e 20S. Tais observac¸ oes sao oriundas da Operac¸ ao Oceano Leste II (OEII), realizada pela Marinha do Brasil em marc¸o de 2005. Conduzimos a investigac¸ ao a partir de um m´etodo cient´fico que entendemos nao ter sido ainda empregado para os escoamentos ao largo da costa brasileira. Tal m´etodo consiste no M´etodo Dinamico Referenciado, que combina dados termohalinos e de velocidades observadas para estimar velocidades geostr´oficas absolutas, que sao livres da dependencia de um n´vel de movimento nulo imposto pelo M´etodo Dinamico Cl´assico. Este m´etodo substitui o n´vel de movimento nulo por um n´vel de velocidades conhecidas, que correspondem `as velocidades medidas diretamente pelo ADCP de casco. Encontramos para o cen´ario climatol ´ogico de verao, a assinatura da BiCSE em 9S para superf´cie, em 12S para 200 m, vi em 20S para 500 m e em 23S para 800 m. Confirmamos informac¸ oes da literatura sobre sua migrac¸ ao meridional com o aumento da profundidade. Identificamos tamb´em o cen´ario m´edio de origem e organizac¸ ao da CB e da Sub-corrente Norte do Brasil (SNB) nos n´veis citados, os quais subsidiarao a an´alise dos campos sin´ oticos. Os campos sin´oticos confirmaram os resultados m´edios da climatologia. Em superf´cie, nao observamos sinais da BiCSE no interior da ´area de estudo, e mostramos que na ocasiao da OEII, a CB se origina ao norte de 10S e comec¸a sua organizac¸ ao ainda distante da margem continental. Em 150 m, identificamos a assinatura da BiCSE em 14,5S, e em 500 m, em 20S. Sugerimos entao que a origem da CB enquanto corrente de contorno oeste, fluindo junto `a margem continental leste brasileira, se localiza em 14,5S. Concluindo, a CB se organiza ao norte de 10S e flui distante da margem continental como uma corrente fraca e rasa, atingindo no m´aximo os 100 primeiros metros de profundidade. Esta corrente atinge o contorno oeste em 14,5S e flui em direc¸ ao ao sul seguindo as isobatim´etricas. Ao longo deste caminho, apresenta meandros vigorosos, em particular, anticiclones. Estes anticiclones parecem estar associados a feic¸ oes topogr´aficas relevantes da ´area tais quais os Bancos de Royal Charlotte e de Abrolhos. As velocidades da CB aumentam em intensidade e a corrente ganha espessura vertical at´e 20S. A SNB parece se originar em 20S, com n´ ucleo situado em 700 m. Esta corrente segue viagem rumo ao norte de forma que seu n´ ucleo se torna cada vez mais raso, e suas velocidades cada vez maiores, at´e deixar o dom´nio em 10S. Nesta latitude, seu n´ ucleo se localiza a 250 m de profundidade. / The origin of Brazil Current (BC) is associated with the bifurcation of the South Equatorial Current (BiSEC). The BC then flows south bordering the Brazilian continental margin. However, inferences on the BC origin site as well as its organization as a western boundary current are based in large scale patterns of the BiSEC. It lacks details on the location of the BC and the possible mesoscale activity related to its formation. While the BC meandering off the Southeastern and Southern Brazilian continental margin has been widely reported in the literature, no information is available for the BC structure and its meanders off the Brazilian Eastern margin. The motivation and main goal of this work is to describe the mesoscale scenario associated with the BC formation and organization as a boundary current. In order to reach this goal, we opted to first build a climatological geostrophic picture of the BiSEC and BC origin for the summer using solely temperature-salinity data. Following such investigation, we analyzed data from an oceanographic cruise conducted by the Brazilian Navy that consisted of simultaneous CTD profiling and vessel-mounted ADCP velocity measurements, also for the summer period. The quasi-synoptic data analysis was conducted using a method that has not been employed for flows along the Brazilian continental margin: the ADCP-referenced dynamic method. Unlike the traditional dynamic method, ADCP velocities are used to reference the CTD-derived baroclinic velocities and to obtain a total geostrophic velocity field. In the climatological data analysis, the relative geostrophic current patterns exhibited a BiSEC signature at 9S for surface, at 12S for 200 m, at 20S for 500 m and 23S for 800 m. We thus confirmed information of the literature about the southward migration of the BiSEC structure with depth. We also identified the summer mean scenario for the BC and North Brazil Undercurrent (NBUC) formation. The quasi-synoptic total velocity fields confirmed the relative cliviii matological fields. At surface, we found no signature of the BiSEC within the cruise sampled area. The BC was originated north of 10S and seemed to start flowing, as a weak current with vertical extension less than 100 m deep, distant from the western boundary. At 150 m (500 m), the BiSEC signature was evident at 14.5S (20S). We thus suggest that the synoptic BC origin as a western boundary current was located at around 14.5S. We can summarize our findings describing that the BC organized itself as a weak and shallow current at around 10S. At 14.5S, the BC attached itself to the continental margin and flew following the bathymetric contours. As it flows south, it meandered vigorously and frontal anticyclones were present off the main topographic features of the Eastern coast: the Royal Charlotte and the Abrolhos Banks. In its path southward, the BC was intensified and extended vertically. It seemed that NBUC was originated at around 20S with a velocity core centered at 700 m. As this undercurrent flows northward, it increased transport and its velocity core became shallower. At the northern portion of the study area, the NBUC core reached the depth of 250 m.

L'objectif de cette thèse est de développer des approches statistiques pour l'évaluation systématique et quantitative de simulations océaniques multi-décennales globales à l'aide d'observations altimétriques et hydrographiques. La première étape consiste à extraire des simulations la contrepartie exacte (en temps et en espace) des observations pour construire des données synthétiques. La comparaison entre les données observées et simulées colocalisées permettent d'évaluer les simulations et de les comparer entre elles par rapport à des références communes (observations). De plus, la comparaison entre les sorties des modèles considérées chaque point de grille et colocalisées permet d'évaluer l’impact du sous-échantillonnage des réseaux d’observations sur l'estimation de certaines quantités océaniques importantes pour le climat. Nous quantifions l'impact de la résolution de nos modèles (2°, 1°, ½°, ¼°) sur le réalisme des simulations au regard des observations. Résoudre une gamme d'échelles spatio-temporelles plus large améliore de façon significative la représentation de la circulation océanique moyenne, de la structure thermohaline, de la variabilité saisonnière de la couche de mélange et de la variabilité du niveau de la mer sur plusieurs échelles spatio-temporelles, notamment à l'échelle interannuelle. Ce résultat nouveau montre l’intérêt d’utiliser un modèle au 1/4°, capable de représenter en partie la méso-échelle, pour les scénarios climatiques. Nous mettons également en évidence la capacité du modèle au 1/4° à simuler une variabilité interannuelle intrinsèque du niveau de la mer, non corrélée avec les observations en raison de son caractère chaotique, mais probablement réaliste et nécessaire pour mieux représenter l'intensité de la variabilité interannuelle.A l’aide des simulations, nous montrons également que l'inhomogénéité de la couverture spatio-temporelle du réseau d'observations Argo induit une surestimation des profondeurs et des contenus thermiques de la couche de mélange, et que les limitations géographiques du réseau actuel induisent des biais en amplitude sur les estimations des variabilités saisonnière et interannuelle du contenu thermique de l'océan global. / This work aims to develop statistical approaches to systematically and quantitatively assess 50-year global ocean simulations against altimetric and hydrographic observations. Simulation outputs are first sub-sampled exactly like observations to build pseudo (synthetic) observations. We use collocated misfits between synthetic and real observations to assess the simulations at the same dates and locations, and compare the simulations together. We then use the sub-sampled and fully sampled model outputs to assess the impact of sub-sampling in real observing systems on the estimation of oceanic quantities with climatic relevance. We first quantify how the resolution of our ocean models (2°, 1°, ½°, ¼°) affects the realism of their solutions with respect to both observational datasets. We quantify how broadening the range of resolved space scales significantly improves the representation of the mean surface circulation, the thermohaline structure, the seasonal cycle of mixed layers, as well as sea-surface height variability at most space and time scales; this is particularly the case at interannual time scales, highlighting the potential of eddy-permitting resolutions for climate simulations. We also show the capacity of the 1/4° model to simulate an interannual intrinsic variability of sea-level, decorrelated from observed timeseries because of its chaotic character, but probably realistic and necessary to better represent the intensity of the interannual variability.The simulations also show that the spatio-temporal dispersion of the Argo floats induces overestimations of the mixed layer depths and heat contents, and the geographical restrictions of the actual Argo array induce biases in amplitude on the seasonal and interannual variabilities of the global ocean heat content.

Les écoles spéciales de marine (Brest et Toulon) sont créées par le décret du 27 septembre 1810 par Napoléon et son ministre de la marine Decrès. Après une période révolutionnaire qui fragilise le corps des officiers de marine, cette création s’inscrit dans la réforme du système éducatif de l’empire mais aussi dans la tradition de la formation de l’officier de marine en France. Seulement ces écoles spéciales sont fermées dès la Restauration : seule une génération d’officier a été formée, et seul un tiers de ces élèves est conservé dans la marine. L’étude de leur carrière nous montre que malgré l’épuration de la marine à la Restauration, l’ambition élitiste de Napoléon est conservée et poursuivie à travers les élèves qui parviennent à demeurer dans la marine. La deuxième partie porte alors sur les missions de la marine à travers les yeux et les actions de ces officiers. Ces derniers se démarquent par une véritable vitalité dans les projets et études scientifiques menés, mais aussi à travers les opérations militaires qui marquent l’époque. Cette étude nous montre aussi des hommes qui sont à la fois un lien entre la France métropolitaine et les territoires extra européens par leur métier, et savent s’adapter aux conjonctures politiques de leur époque : politique intérieure et politique extérieure. Une approche plus individuelle est particulièrement développée dans une troisième partie à travers leur vie de famille, l’aspect sanitaire de ce métier très exigeant pour la santé et les rapports que ces officiers entretiennent avec les autorités politiques et la hiérarchie militaire. / The Navy « Écoles spéciales » (in Brest and Toulon) were created by a bill on Septembre 27th 1810 by Napoleon and his minister of Navy, Decrès. The revolutionary era had weakened the Naval officers corps ; therefore, this decision fit into the larger education reforms by Napoleon but calls back as well to the traditional schooling of Naval officers. But those schools were shut down during the Restauration : Only one generation of officers benefited from these schools and one third of those officers remained in the Navy. Studying their career shows that, in spite of the Navy being purged during the Restauration, Napoleon’s ambition to create an elite was kept alive by those alumni who managed to stay in the Navy. The second part tackles the key objectives of the Navy as seen through the eyes and actions of these officers. These men stand out through the energy they deploy in scientific endeavours and studies, but also through their service in the military operations of the time. This study shines a light on men who, thanks to their chosen profession, are a bridge between France and oversea territories, and know how to navigate the changing politics of their time, both domestically and overseas. Thanks to their logs and reports, we can also take a closer look at the men under the uniform, studying in a third part their family life, the health aspects of their profession and the relationship those officers have with civilian authorities and their hierarchy.