Topological insulators (TIs) are a new state of quantum matter that has fundamentally challenged our knowledge of insulator and metals. They are insulators in the bulk, but metallic on the edge. A TI is characterized by a so-called topological invariant. This characteristic integer number is associated to every mapping between two topological spaces and can be defined for an electronic system on the lattice. Due to the bulk-edge correspondence a non-trivial value leads to topologically protected edge states. To get insight into the electronic characteristics of these edge/surface states, however, an effective continuum theory is needed. Continuum models are analytical and are also able to model transport. In this thesis we will address the suitability of continuum low-energy theories to describe the topological characteristics of TIs. The models which are topologically well-defined are called topological k.p Hamiltonians. After introducing a necessary background in chapter 1 and 2, we will discuss in the methodological chapter 3 the strategies that have to be taken into account to allow for studying topological surface states. In chapter 4 we will study two different model classes associated to a spherical basis manifold. Both have an integer topological invariant, but one shows a marginal bulk-edge correspondence. In chapter 5 we will study a different continuum theory where the basis manifold corresponds to a hemisphere. We then apply all these ideas to a time-reversal invariant TI -- uniaxially strained Mercury Telluride (HgTe). We determine the spin textures of the topological surface states of strained HgTe using their close relations with the mirror Chern numbers of the system and the orbital composition of the surface states. We show that at the side surfaces with $C_{2v}$ point group symmetry an increase in the strain magnitude triggers a topological phase transition where the winding number of the surface state spin texture is flipped while the four topological invariants characterizing the bulk band structure are unchanged. In the last chapter we will give a summary.

Topological insulators (TIs) are a new state of quantum matter that has fundamentally challenged our knowledge of insulator and metals. They are insulators in the bulk, but metallic on the edge. A TI is characterized by a so-called topological invariant. This characteristic integer number is associated to every mapping between two topological spaces and can be defined for an electronic system on the lattice. Due to the bulk-edge correspondence a non-trivial value leads to topologically protected edge states. To get insight into the electronic characteristics of these edge/surface states, however, an effective continuum theory is needed. Continuum models are analytical and are also able to model transport. In this thesis we will address the suitability of continuum low-energy theories to describe the topological characteristics of TIs. The models which are topologically well-defined are called topological k.p Hamiltonians. After introducing a necessary background in chapter 1 and 2, we will discuss in the methodological chapter 3 the strategies that have to be taken into account to allow for studying topological surface states. In chapter 4 we will study two different model classes associated to a spherical basis manifold. Both have an integer topological invariant, but one shows a marginal bulk-edge correspondence. In chapter 5 we will study a different continuum theory where the basis manifold corresponds to a hemisphere. We then apply all these ideas to a time-reversal invariant TI -- uniaxially strained Mercury Telluride (HgTe). We determine the spin textures of the topological surface states of strained HgTe using their close relations with the mirror Chern numbers of the system and the orbital composition of the surface states. We show that at the side surfaces with $C_{2v}$ point group symmetry an increase in the strain magnitude triggers a topological phase transition where the winding number of the surface state spin texture is flipped while the four topological invariants characterizing the bulk band structure are unchanged. In the last chapter we will give a summary.

Les isolants topologiques constituent une nouvelle classe de matériaux caractérisés par l'association d'un volume isolant et de surfaces conductrices. Avec des propriétés électroniques similaires au graphene, notamment un transport régit par des particules à énergie de dispersion linéaire couramment appelés fermions de Dirac ainsi qu'une protection topologique empêchant tout phénomène de rétrodiffusion, ces matériaux suscitent un intérêt grandissant dans la quête d'une électronique de faible consommation. En effet, la production de courants de spin non-dissipatifs et polarisés ainsi que la formation de courants de spin purs en l'absence de matériaux magnétiques constituent une partie des attentes de ces matériaux topologiques.L'objectif de cette thèse a été de démontrer expérimentalement le potentiel de l'isolant topologique HgTe pour des applications notamment dans le domaine de la l'électronique de spin ou spintronique.Pour ce faire, d'importants efforts ont été mis en œuvre pour améliorer le procédé de croissance par épitaxie par jets moléculaires.La composition chimique, la contrainte ainsi que la qualité des interfaces de la couche de HgTe ont été identifiées comme des axes majeurs de travail et d'optimisation afin d'obtenir une structure de bande inversée, l'ouverture d'un gap de volume, ainsi que pour protéger les propriétés électroniques des états de surface topologiques. Fort de ces caractéristiques, notre matériau possède à priori toutes les qualités nécessaires pour permettre de sonder les propriétés topologiques. Accéder à ces propriétés particulières est en particulier possible par des mesures d'effet Hall quantique sur des structures de type barres de Hall. La fabrication de ces dispositifs a néanmoins requis une attention particulière à cause de la forte volatilité du mercure et a nécessité le développement d'un procédé de nanofabrication à basses températures.Des mesures d'effet Hall quantique à très basses températures ont ensuite été réalisées dans un cryostat à dilution. Tout d'abord des couches épaisses de HgTe ont été mesurées et ont démontrées des mécanismes de transport très complexes mêlant les états de surface topologiques à d'autres contributions attribuées au volume et aux états de surface latéraux. La réduction de l'épaisseur des couches de HgTe a permis de limiter l'impact de ces contributions en les rendant négligeable pour les couches les plus fines. Dans ces conditions, ces structures ont affiché les propriétés attendues de l'effet Hall quantique avec notamment une annulation de la résistance. Avec ces propriétés, l'analyse en température de l'effet Hall quantique a permis de démontrer la nature des porteurs circulant sur les états de surface topologiques et de les identifier à des fermions de Dirac.Avec la mise en évidence de la nature topologique de notre système, l'étape suivante a été d'utiliser les propriétés topologiques et plus particulièrement le blocage entre le moment et le spin d'un électron pour tester le potentiel du système 3D HgTe/CdTe pour la spintronique. Premièrement, des mesures de pompage de spin ont été réalisées et ont mis en exergue la puissance de ces structures pour l'injection et la détection de spin. Deuxièmement, ces structures ont été implémentéessous la forme de jonction p-n dans l'idée de réaliser un premier dispositif de spintronique qui présente à ce jour des premiers signes de fonctionnement. / With graphene-like transport properties governed by massless Dirac fermions and a topological protection preventing from backscattering phenomena, topological insulators, characterized by an insulating bulk and conducting surfaces, are of main interest to build low power consumption electronic building-blocks of primary importance for future electronics.Indeed, the absence of disorder, the generation of dissipation-less spin-polarized current or even the possibility to generate pure spin current without magnetic materials are some of the promises of these new materials.The objective of this PhD thesis has been to experimentally demonstrate the eligibility of HgTe three dimensional topological insulator system for applications and especially for spintronics.To do so, strong efforts have been dedicated to the improvement of the growth process by molecular beam epitaxy.Chemical composition, strain, defect density and sharpness of the HgTe interfaces have been identified as the major parameters of study and improvement to ensure HgTe inverted band structure, bulk gap opening and to emphasize the resulting topological surface state electronic properties. Verification of the topological nature of this system has then been performed using low temperature magneto-transport measurements of Hall bars designed with various HgTe thicknesses. It is worth noting that the high desorption rate of Hg has made the nanofabrication process more complex and required the development of a low temperature process adapted to this constraint. While the thicker samples have evidenced very complex transport signatures that need to be further investigated and understood, the thickness reduction has led to the suppression of any additional contributions, such as bulk or even side surfaces, and the demonstration of quantum Hall effect with vanishing resistance. Consequently, we have managed to demonstrate direct evidences of Dirac fermions by temperature dependent analysis of the quantum Hall effect. The next step has been to use the topological properties and especially the locking predicted between momentum and spin to test the HgTe potential for spintronics. Spin pumping experiments have demonstrated the power of these topological structures for spin injection and detection. Moreover, the implementation of HgTe into simple p-n junction has also been investigated to realize a first spin-based logic element.

Cette thèse porte sur la caractérisation et l'étude du magnéto-transport sur les structures de type HgTe/CdTe sous contraintes développant un transport de surface topologique tout en étant isolant en volume ; on nomme cette nouvelle classe de matériau isolant topologique 3D.Je développerai dans cette thèse la caractérisation et définition d'un isolant topologique 2D/3D pour ensuite me focalise plus particulièrement sur les systèmes II-VI HgTe/CdTe.Une partie de la thèse développe les conditions de croissance réalisées au CEA/Leti ainsi que la caractérisation du matériau par rayon X. La structure de bande des surfaces est caractérisée par ARPES.Une troisième partie traite de la fabrication des barres de Hall nécessaires à la caractérisation du comportement topologique des surfaces. La partie développement expérimentale est également fournie.La dernière partie traite du magnétotransport réalisé avec ces barres de Hall à faible et fort champ magnétique. Le comportement ambipolaire, une phase de Berry non triviale, l'antilocalisation faible et l'effet Hall quantique entier dans ces structures sont abordés tout tentant de fournir une interprétation des résultats obtenus. / This report deal with caracterisation of magnetotransport in HgTe/CdTe structures bulk strained in that a topological surface transport is predicted. This new kind of material is a 3D topological insulator.In this thesis, I will explain what means 3D/2D topological insulator before focusing on II-VI system lijke HgTe/CdTe.Next, I will discuss about growing conditions performed in CEA/Leti and then material caracterisation by X-ray. Surfaces band structures were also, observed by ARPES, underligned in the report.A third part deal with Hall bars design and conception in order to emphasize topological behavior of these surfaces.The last part shows the results obtained on these Hall bars with magnetotransport at low and high magnetic field. Ambipolaire behaviour, non trivial Berry phase, weak antilocalization and the interger quantum hall effect in HgTe/CdTe structures are studied and a possible interpretation of these results are given.

Biomedicine has recently exploited many nanotechnology platforms for the detection and treatment of disease as well as for the fundamental study of cellular biology. A prime example of these successes is the implementation of semiconductor quantum dots in a wide range of biological and medical applications, from in vitro biosensing to in vivo cancer imaging. Quantum dots are nearly spherical nanocrystals composed of semiconductor materials that can emit fluorescent light with high intensity and a strong resistance to degradation. The aim of this thesis is to understand the fundamental physics of colloidal quantum dots, to engineer their optical and structural properties for applications in biology and medicine, and to examine the interaction of these particles with biomolecules and living cells. Toward these goals, new synthetic strategies for colloidal nanocrystals have been developed, implementing a cation exchange method for independent tuning of size and fluorescence, and a bandgap engineering technique that utilizes mechanical strain imposed by coherent shell growth. In addition, stable nanocrystals have been prepared with ultrathin coatings (< 2 nm), 'amphibious' solubility, and broadly tunable bioaffinity, induced by self-assembly with polyhistidine-sequences on recombinant proteins. Finally, colloidal quantum dots have been studied in biological fluids and living cells in order to elucidate their interactions with biological systems. It was found that these interactions are strongly dependent on the size of the nanocrystal, and cytotoxic effects of these particles are largely independent of their composition of heavy metal atoms, demonstrating that the rule book for toxicology must be rewritten for nanomaterials.

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CdSe quantum dots produced by organometallic synthesis are useful as tunable emitters for photonic devices and as multi-colored protein markers for biomedical imaging, applications requiring bright and narrow emission. A diffusion-limited model helped monitor growth rates via photoluminescence and absorbance spectroscopy, in order to characterize synthesis kinetics in stearic acid, dodecylamine, and in trioctylphosphine oxide. The nucleation rate increased with Se concentration, while the growth rate followed the Cd concentration. Emission peak widths, emission redshift rates, nanocrystal growth rates, and reactant concentrations all decreased to a minimum when emission reached the critical wavelength, at a reaction completion time, tc. The temperature dependence of 1/tc and of redshift rates followed Arrhenius behavior governed by activation energies, which were tailored by the choice of solvent. Synthesis in solvents, such as stearic acid, with lower activation energies produced faster initial nanocrystal growth and longer critical wavelengths. The highest photoluminescence quantum yield was generally at wavelengths shorter than the critical wavelength, when moderate growth rates enabled surface reconstruction while precursors were still available. / Ph. D.