Introdução: O Adenocarcinoma ductal pancreático é um tumor bastante agressivo que apresenta uma alta de letalidade e, para o qual, poucas opções terapêuticas estão disponíveis. Isto pode ser parcialmente explicado pela complexidade derivada de múltiplas aberrações genéticas e da população celular mista presente em um tumor pancreático, o que também pode explicar o curso clínico heterogêneo observado na prática diária. Ultimamente, pesquisas científicas têm contribuído para ampliar o conhecimento sobre o impacto das alterações epigenéticas no desenvolvimento de múltiplos tipos de câncer, porém no pâncreas essas alterações ainda são incertas e, por isso, foco de investigação. A desregulação epigenética parece estar envolvida no ciclo celular da célula tumoral, incluindo o crescimento celular, diferenciação, progressão tumoral e morte celular, e a acetilação das histonas é um importante mecanismo que regula a transcrição de genes envolvidos nesses processos. Padrões globais de modificações das histonas foram recentemente apontados como preditores de desfecho em pacientes com câncer, mas poucos estudos têm sido realizados nesta área, inclusive em Adenocarcinoma ductal pancreático (ADP). Objetivos: O presente estudo foi desenvolvido a fim de investigar o padrão de modificação de acetilação das histonas em adenocarcinoma pancreático, através da análise imunohistoquímica. Materiais e métodos: Uma análise clinicopatológica retrospectiva foi realizada em 119 pacientes diagnosticados com câncer de pâncreas entre os anos de 2005 e 2011, e realizado estudo imunohistoquímico com os anticorpos contra H4K12ac, H3K9ac e H3K18ac. Marcação nuclear positiva para cada histona foi medida quanto à intensidade e expressão, sendo classificadas em grupos de baixa ou de alta intensidade/expressão. Os resultados foram analisados em relação aos parâmetros clinicopatológicos de cada paciente. Resultados: Houve uma relação positiva entre diferenciação tumoral e alta expressão de H4K12ac (P <0,05), bem como a intensidade forte dos três marcadores correlacionou-se positivamente com o estágio do tumor (P <0,01). Análise univariada mostrou pior sobrevida em pacientes com níveis elevados de expressão de H4K12ac (p = 0,038) e H3K18Ac (P = 0,033). Modelo de risco proporcional de Cox revelou o efeito prognóstico independente de níveis elevados de H4K12ac H3K18ac (taxas de risco de 1,6 e 1,7, respectivamente, p <0,05), especialmente para pacientes em estágios iniciais. Sugerimos como hipótese que as modificações na acetilação das histonas H4K12 e H3K18 podem ser consideradas fatores prognósticos importantes para o câncer de pâncreas, embora o mecanismo envolvido necessite de mais investigação. Aumentando a compreensão e o conhecimento sobre o padrão de acetilação das histonas, poder-se-ão finalmente gerar novas idéias para um diagnóstico molecular racional e novas abordagens terapêuticas. / Introduction: Ductal pancreatic adenocarcinoma (DPAs) is a highly aggressive tumor, with a high letality rate, for which few therapeutic options are available. This may be partially explained by the notorious complexity derived from the multiple genetic aberrations and mixed cellular population present in a pancreatic tumor, which can also explain the heterogeneous clinical course observed in daily practice. Lately, there is an increase in the literature about the impact of epigenetic changes on the development of several cancer, however in the pancreas these changes are still uncertain. Epigenetic deregulation may be involved in tumor cell biology, including cell growth, differentiation, tumor progression and cell death, and histone acetylation is a major mechanism that regulates gene transcription. Patterns of global histone modifications have been recently suggested as outcome predictors in cancer patients, but few studies have been conducted on pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas. Objectives: This study was designed to investigate the predictive value of histone acetylation modifications on pancreatic cancer. Material and methods: A retrospective clinicopathologic analysis was undertaken in 119 patients diagnosed with PDAC between 2005 and 2011, and immunohistochemistry performed with antibodies against H4K12ac, H3K9ac and H3K18ac. Positive nuclear staining for each histone was measured as the intensity and expression, being classified into low or high-staining groups. Results were analyzed in relation to patients’ clinicopathologic parameters. Results: There was a positive relationship between tumor differentiation and H4K12ac high scores (P<0.05) and staining of the three markers correlated positively with tumor stage (P<0.01). Univariate analysis showed worse survival in patients with high detection levels of H4K12ac (p=0.038) and H3K18Ac (P=0.033). A backwards Cox proportional hazards model revealed the independent prognostic effect of high H4K12ac and H3K18ac levels (hazard ratios of 1.6 and 1.7 respectively, p<0.05), especially for patients at early stages. We hypothesize that acetylation of H4K12 and H3K18 may be considered valuable prognostic factors for pancreatic cancer, although the mechanism involved needs further investigation. Increasing insights into histone acetylation modifications can ultimately generate new ideas for rationally and molecularly based diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

Les mécanismes épigénétiques jouent un rôle essentiel dans la régulation de l’expression des gènes. L’enzyme du complexe répresseur Polycomb II EZH2, capable de triméthyler la lysine 27 de l’histone H3 (H3K27me3) est impliquée dans la régulation de nombreux processus normaux, tels que le développement et la différenciation cellulaire. Les plasmocytes jouent un rôle majeur dans la réponse immunitaire humorale. La différenciation des lymphocytes B en plasmocytes (PCD) est finement régulée par un réseau de facteurs de transcription impliqué de l’induction et le maintien de l’identité de ces deux types cellulaires. Par ailleurs, peu de mécanismes épigénétiques ont été décrits dans la PCD. En utilisant un modèle in vitro de PCD développé dans notre laboratoire, nous avons mis en évidence une surexpression d’EZH2 dans le stade préplasmablaste (prePB) de la PCD. Grâce à l’analyse globale des séquences d’ADN associées à EZH2 et H3K27me3 dans ce type cellulaire, nous avons montré que l’enzyme était capable de réprimer l’expression de gènes impliqués dans différentes fonctions des lymphocytes B et des plasmocytes. EZH2 est également capable de se fixer sur le promoteur de gènes actifs dans les prePB, impliqués dans la régulation de la prolifération de ces cellules. En outre, nous avons montré que l’inhibition chimique d’EZH2 dans notre modèle résultent en une dérégulation transcriptionnelle associée à une accélération du processus de différenciation. Nos résultats suggèrent qu’EZH2 est impliqué dans le maintien de l’état transitoire, immature et prolifératif des prePBs via la régulation de gènes, dépendante et indépendante de H3K27me3, favorisant l’amplification des cellules à défaut de leur différenciation en plasmocytes. Des anomalies de séquence ou de l’expression d’EZH2 ont été mis en évidence de nombreux cancers hématologiques et solides. Le myélome multiple (MM) est une hémopathie caractérisée par l’accumulation de plasmocytes tumoraux dans la moelle osseuse. Nos travaux ont notamment permis d’identifier une surexpression des membres du complexe Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) dans les cellules de MM, en association avec leur prolifération. Afin de comprendre le rôle de PRC2 dans le MM, nous avons utilisé un inhibiteur de l’activité méthyltransférase d’EZH2 (EPZ-6438). L’effet de l’inhibiteur d’EZH2 sur la prolifération et la survie des cellules de MM est très hétérogène. En effet, les cellules sensibles présentent un arrêt du cycle cellulaire et entrent en apoptose. De manière intéressante, la résistance des cellules de MM à l’inhibiteur d’EZH2 pourrait être médiée induite par la méthylation des promoteurs des gènes cibles de PRC2. Nous avons ainsi établi un score (EZ-score), basé sur l’expression des gènes, permettant d’identifier des patients de mauvais pronostic pouvant bénéficier d’un traitement avec un inhibiteur d’EZH2. Nous avons également mis en évidence un effet synergique de EPZ-6438 et du Lenalidomide, un agent immuno-modulateurs utilisé en traitement conventionnelle du MM. Cette inhibition de la croissance cellulaire est notamment due à l’induction de l’expression de facteurs de transcription, spécifiques des lymphocytes B, et des suppresseurs de tumeurs en association avec la répression de l’expression de MYC. Aussi, un prétraitement avec l’inhibiteur d’EZH2 permet de surmonter la résistance des cellules tumorales au Lenalidomide. Ces données suggèrent que le ciblage de PRC2 pourrait avoir un intérêt thérapeutique chez les patients caractérisés par un mauvais pronostic et un fort EZ-score. Ainsi, l’inhibiteur d’EZH2 pourrait également permettre de resensibiliser les patients aux chimiothérapies basées sur des agents immuno-modulateurs. / Epigenetic mechanisms play an essential role in gene expression regulation. EZH2, the catalytic sub-unit of PRC2, is able to trimethylate the lysine 27 of histone H3 (H3K27me3) and is involved in the regulation of numerous normal processes, such as development and cell differentiation. Plasma cells (PCs) play a major role in the defense of the host organism against pathogens, by producing antigen-specific antibodies. B cell differentiation into PC is mediated by a fine-tuned regulatory network of cell specific transcription factors involved in B and plasma cell identity. Although numerous key actors involved in plasma cell differentiation (PCD) have been described, most of the epigenetic mechanisms associated with this process are yet to be unveiled. Using an in vitro model of PCD developed in our laboratory, we showed that EZH2 is upregulated in the preplasmablast stage (prePB) of the PCD. By analyzing DNA sequences associated with EZH2 and H3K27me3 in this cell type, we highlighted that EZH2 is recruited to and represses through H3K27me3 a subset of genes involved in B cell and plasma cell identity. Interestingly, in prePBs and PBs, EZH2 was also found to be recruited to H3K27me3-free promoters of transcriptionally active genes known to regulate cell proliferation and DNA repair. Inhibition of EZH2 catalytic activity resulted in B to PC transcriptional changes associated with PC maturation induction together with higher immunoglobulin secretion. Altogether, our data suggests that EZH2 is involved in the maintenance of prePBs/PBs transitory immature proliferative state through H3K27me3-dependent and independent gene regulation supporting their amplification. Moreover, while EZH2 overexpression was previously shown to inhibit PCD in mice, this study highlights for the first time that EZH2 inhibition can accelerate normal human PCD by prematurely inducing a plasma cell transcriptional program.EZH2 mutations or abnormal expression were shown to be involved in numerous hematological malignancies and solid tumors. Multiple Myeloma (MM) is a malignant plasma cell disease with a poor survival, characterized by the accumulation of myeloma cells (MMCs) within the bone marrow. We identified a significant upregulation of the Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) core genes in MM cells in association with proliferation. We used EPZ-6438, a specific small molecule inhibitor of EZH2 methyltransferase activity, to evaluate its effects on MM cells phenotype and gene expression profile. PRC2 targeting results in cell growth inhibition due to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis together with Polycomb, DNA methylation, TP53 and RB1 target genes induction. EZH2 inhibitor induced toxicity was heterogeneous in human myeloma cell lines and primary MM cells from patients. Interestingly, we found that MM cell resistance to EZH2 inhibitor could be mediated by DNA methylation of PRC2 target genes. We established a gene expression-based EZ-score allowing to identify poor prognosis patients that could benefit from EZH2 inhibitor treatment. We also demonstrated a synergistic effect of EPZ-6438 and Lenalidomide, a conventional drug used for MM treatment, through the activation of B cell transcription factors and tumor suppressor gene expression in concert with MYC repression. Moreover, EPZ-6438 pre-treatment was able to overcome MM cells resistance to lenalidomide. These data suggest that PRC2 targeting could have a therapeutic interest in MM patients characterized by high-risk EZ-score values, reactivating B cell transcription factors and tumor suppressor genes. EZH2 inhibitor could also re-sensitize MM patients to chemotherapies based on immunomodulatory agents.

Covalent modifications of histones play a critical role in many important biological processes such as transcription, DNA repair and recombination. Among the major modifications known so far, histone H3 acetylation at lysines 9 and 14 (H3K9/14), monoubiquitination of histone H2B at lysine123 (H2BK123) and H3 lysine 4 methylation (H3K4) are among the more studied ones. The importances of these modifications have been further stressed by its connection to various human diseases including cancers. Previous biochemical studies have shown that H2BK123 ubiquitination is mandatory for methylation at histone H3K4. However, little is known about the regulatory mechanisms of H3K4 methylation by H2B ubiquitination in vivo. Thus, the prime focus of this study is to understand the factors involved in the regulation of H2B ubiquitination, the regulatory mechanisms of the cross-talk between H2BK123 ubiquitination and H3K4 methylation and the role of these covalent modifications in transcriptional regulation under physiological conditions. Here in this study, I have shown that Ubp8p, a histone deubiquitinase, is a bona fide subunit of SAGA (Spt3-Ada-Gcn5 acetyltransferase) co-activator complex and selectively regulates both di and trimethylation of histone H3K4 at the core promoter of a SAGA-dependent gene in vivo. However, over the open reading frames for a subset of constitutive genes H2B ubiquitination selectively upregulates only H3K4 trimethylation but not dimethylation. Moreover, such an upregulation of H3K4 trimethylation has no impact on the RNA Polymerase II (RNAPII) recruitment and hence transcription of the respective genes. Interestingly, at an inducible gene, histone H2B ubiquitination promotes transcription elongation independently of H3K4 methylation. Furthermore, this study also demonstrates for the first time, the molecular mechanism for the cross-talk between H2B ubiquitination and H3K4 methylation in vivo. Evidently a COMPASS subunit, Cps35p, is necessary for the trans-tail cross talk between histones H2B and H3. Finally, this study also shows that Sgf73p, a SAGA subunit, is required for SAGA recruitment at the promoters of several SAGA dependent genes and facilitates transcription in both HAT-dependent and HAT-independent manner. Collectively, the results from this study not only provide deep insights into the regulatory mechanisms of H2B ubiquitination and H3K4 methylation (and their role in transcription) but also give a new functional dimension to SAGA subunit, Sgf73p, under physiological conditions. Given the role of histone acetylation, ubiquitination and methylation in many human diseases, the results from this study is of tremendous clinical value unveiling new therapeutical targets.

Alors que les méthylations sur différents résidus lysine des histones (par exemple H3K4, H3K27 et H3K36) sont bien connues pour exercer diverses fonctions biologiques, leurs interactions et/ou leur mode d’actions demeurent encore peu caractérisés. Par la génétique et des outils de biologie moléculaire, nous visons à étudier les rôles et interconnections des méthylations des H3K4, H3K27 et H3K36 dans la transcription, la croissance de la plante et la régulation du développement chez Arabidopsis thaliana.La première partie de ma thèse est centrée sur les rôles et interconnections des méthylations de H3K4 and K36.ATX1 et ATX2 sont des méthyltransférases de H3K4 alors que SDG8 est une méthyltransférase de H3K36.L’analyse de doubles mutants a révélé que sdg8 est dominant sur atx1 et atx2 pour le temps de floraison et larégulation de la prolifération cellulaire. La triméthylation de H3K36 (H3K36me3) est partiellement dépendante de H3K4me3 mais non-réciproquement. SDG25 a une double activité H3K4me3 et H3K36me3 et les déméthylases de H3K4, LDL1 et LDL2, sont des antagonistes de l’activité de SDG25. Les triples mutants sdg25ldl1ldl2 fleurissent plus tôt que la lignée sauvage, mais plus tard que sdg25 et montrent une augmentation de taille de cellule similaire à celle des mutants ldl1ldl2.La deuxième partie de ma thèse se concentre sur les rôles et interconnections entre les méthylations H3K4/K36 et H3K27. CLF catalyse les H3K27me3 au sein du complexe PRC2. Les doubles mutants sdg8clf etsdg25clf fleurissent plus tôt que les mutants simples et montrent un nombre réduit de cellules par feuille. Unniveau plus élevé de H3K4me3 et dans une moindre mesure de H3K36me3 a été observé dans le cas de déposition de H3K27me3 réduite, et de la même façon, une déposition de H3K4me3/H3K36me3 réduite augmente aussi le niveau de H3K27me3. Distinct du rôle antagoniste rapporté auparavant entre CLF et ATX1,CLF n’a pas montré d’antagonisme avec SDG25 ou SDG8.La dernière partie de ma thèse est centrée sur le mécanisme de SDG26 dans la régulation du temps de floraison. Mes résultats ont montré que SDG26 est une méthyltransférase H3K4 et/ou H3K36 spécifique de la chromatine de SOC1, un intégrateur de la floraison actif. De manière similaire à SDG25 et SDG8, SDG26 ne travaillait pas de façon antagoniste avec CLF. L’analyse de doubles mutants a révélé que sdg26 domine atx2mais sdg25, atx1 and clf est dominant sur sdg26 pours le temps de floraison et la régulation de la prolifération cellulaire. Les triples mutants sdg26ldl1ldl2 fleurissaient encore plus tard que les mutants sdg26 et ldl1ldl2 et a révélé que sdg26 est dominant sur ldl1ldl2 lors de la régulation de la prolifération cellulaire. Les analysesd’interaction avec les autres composants de PRC2, VEL1 et VRN5, ont révélé que sdg26vel1 et sdg26vrn5 fleurissaient encore plus tard que les mutants simples dans des conditions de jours courts et de vernalisation. Ensemble, mes résultats révèlent des couches additionnelles de complexité de redondance et de diversification de fonctions entre et au sein des méthyltransférases et déméthylases, pour la transcription, le temps de floraison et la régulation de la prolifération cellulaire chez Arabidopsis. / While methylations at different lysine residues of histones (e.g. H3K4, H3K27 and H3K36) are well known to exert diverse biological functions, their interactions and/or ensemble-actions remain poorly characterized so far.Using genetic and molecular biology tools, we aim to investigate roles and ‘crosstalks’ of H3K4, H3K27 andH3K36 methylations in transcription and plant growth and development regulation in Arabidopsis thaliana.The first part of my thesis focuses on the roles and crosstalks between H3K4 and K36 methylations.ATX1 and ATX2 are H3K4 methyltransferases while SDG8 is a H3K36 methyltransferase. Double mutant analysis revealed that sdg8 dominates over atx1 and atx2 in flowering time and cell proliferation regulation.H3K36 trimethylation (H3K36me3) is partially dependent on H3K4me3 but not vice versa. SDG25 has a dualH3K4me3 and H3K36me3 activity and the H3K4-demethylases LDL1 and LDL2 antagonize SDG25 activity.The sdg25ldl1ldl2 triple mutants flowered earlier than wild type but later than sdg25 and showed an increased cell size similarly to ldl1ldl2 mutantsThe second part of my thesis focuses on the roles and crosstalks between H3K4/K36 and H3K27methylations. CLF within PRC2 complex catalyzes H3K27me3. The sdg8clf and sdg25clf double mutants flowered earlier than the single mutants and showed a reduced number of cells per leaf. An increased level ofH3K4me3 and to a less extent H3K36me3 was observed upon impaired H3K27me3 deposition, and similarly impaired H3K4me3/H3K36me3 deposition also enhanced H3K27me3 level. Distinct from previously reported antagonistic role between CLF and ATX1, CLF did not show antagonism with SDG25 or SDG8.The last part of my thesis focuses on mechanism of SDG26 in flowering time regulation. My result showed that SDG26 is a H3K4 and/or H3K36 methyltransferase specific at chromatin of SOC1, an activeflowering integrator. Similarly to SDG25 and SDG8, SDG26 did not work antagonistically with CLF. Double mutant analysis revealed that sdg26 dominates over atx2 while sdg25, atx1 and clf dominate over sdg26 inflowering time and cell proliferation regulation. The sdg26ldl1ldl2 triple mutants flowered even later than thesdg26 and ldl1ldl2 mutants and showed that sdg26 dominates over ldl1ldl2 in cell proliferation regulation.Interaction analysis with the other PRC2 components VEL1 and VRN5 revealed that sdg26vel1 and sdg26vrn5flowered even later than the single mutants under short day and vernalization conditions.Together, my study revealed additional layers of complexity of overlap and non-overlap functions between and within methyltransferases and demethylases in transcription, flowering time and cell proliferation regulation in Arabidopsis.

At least eleven histone H1 variants exist in mammalian somatic cells that bind to the linker DNA and stabilize the nucleosome particle contributing to higher order chromatin compaction. In addition of playing a structural role, H1 seems to be involved in the activation and repression of gene expression. It is not well known whether the different variants have specific roles or regulate specific promoters. We have explored this by inducible shRNA-mediated knock-down of each of the H1 variants in a human breast cancer cell line. Rapid inhibition of each H1 variant was not compensated by changes of expression of other variants. A different, reduced subset of genes is altered in each H1 knock-down. Interestingly, H1.2 depletion represses expression of a number of cell cycle genes. This is concomitant with a G1 arrest phenotype observed in this cell line. In addition, H1.2 depletion caused decreased global nucleosome spacing. These effects are specific of H1.2 depletion as they are not complemented by overexpression of other variants and they do not occur in knock-downs for the other variants. Moreover, H1.4 depletion caused cell death in T47D, being the first report of the essentiality of an H1 variant for survival in a human cell type. In addition to this, we have also investigated specificities of H1 subtypes location in particular promoters of interest in our laboratory, as well as specific interactions with other factors by generating HA-tagged H1 variant expressing cell lines. / Al menos once variantes de la histona H1 han sido identificadas en mamíferos, todas ellas se unen al ADN entre nucleosomas contribuyendo así, a la estabilización de la partícula nucleosómica y a la compactación de la cromatina en estructuras de alto orden. Además de jugar un papel estructural, H1 parece estar implicada en la activación y represión de la expresión génica. Se desconoce si las diferentes variantes de H1 tienen funciones específicas o regulan promotores específicos. Con el objetivo de investigar esta hipótesis se han generado líneas celulares que inhiben de forma inducible, mediante la tecnología de ARN interferente, la expresión de cada una de las variantes de forma específica. La inhibición de cada una de las variantes no es compensada por cambios en la expresión del resto de subtipos. Distintos grupos de genes resultan alterados con la depleción de cada una de las variantes de H1. La inhibición de H1.2 reprime la expresión de una serie de genes de ciclo celular, correlacionando con un fenotipo de arresto celular en fase G1 observado en esta línea. Además, la inhibición de H1.2 causa una disminución global del espaciamiento entre nucleosomas. Todos estos efectos parecen ser específicos para la falta de H1.2 ya que no son complementados por la sobreexpresión de otras variantes. Por otro lado, la inhibición de H1.4 causa muerte celular en T47D. Ésta es la primera vez que se describe que una variante de H1 es esencial para la supervivencia de una línea celular humana.En un segundo plano, se han construido líneas celulares con expresión de las variantes de H1 fusionadas al péptido HA, con el objetivo de estudiar la especificidad de su localización en promotores de interés para el grupo, así como interacciones específicas con otros factores celulares.

Xiao, Zhangang. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 118-131). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstracts also in Chinese.

The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from PDF of title page (University of Missouri--Columbia, viewed on April 6, 2010). Vita. Thesis advisor: Shivendra D. Shukla. "August 2008" Includes bibliographical references

Afin d’étudier la prise en charge des histones H3 jusqu’à l’ADN et pour comprendre l’influence de leur dynamique dans l’organisation d’ordre supérieur de la chromatine, une analyse des chaperonnes d’histones a été menée. Nous avons identifié et caractérisé les sous-unités du complexe HIR, impliqué dans l’assemblage de la chromatine réplication-indépendante chez Arabidopsis. La perte d’AtHIRA, la sous-unité centrale du complexe, affecte le niveau d’histone soluble, l’occupation nucléosomale des régions euchromatiniennes et héterochromatiniennes ainsi que la mise sous silence transcriptionnel des séquences d’ADN répétées. Alors que le complexe HIR ne participe pas à l’organisation d’ordre supérieur de la chromatine, j’ai montré que CAF-1, impliqué dans l’assemblage de la chromatine au cours de la réplication, joue un rôle central dans la formation des chromocentres. Lors du développement post-germinatif des cotylédons, les séquences d’ADN répétées centromériques et péricentromériques se concentrent dans les chromocentres et s’enrichissent en histone H3.1 de manière CAF-1 dépendante. Cet enrichissement, associé à des modifications post-traductionnelles d’histones associées à un état répressif de la transcription, participe à la formation des chromocentres et met en évidence l’importance de l’assemblage de la chromatine par CAF-1 dans la structure et le maintien du génome. Alors que la perte individuelle de HIR ou de CAF-1 n’affecte pas la viabilité, l’absence des deux complexes altère fortement l’occupation nucléosomale et le développement des plantes. Ceci suggère que la compensation fonctionnelle entre ces complexes de chaperonnes ainsi que la plasticité des voies de dépôt des histones restent limitées. / To understand how histones H3 are handled and how histone dynamics impact higher-order chromatin organization such as chromocenter formation in Arabidopsis, a comprehensive analysis of the different histone chaperone complexes is required. We identified and characterized the different subunits of the Arabidopsis HIR complex. AtHIRA is the central subunit and its loss affects non-nucleosomal histone levels, reduces nucleosomal occupancy not only at euchromatic but also at heterochromatic targets and alleviates transcriptional gene silencing. While the HIR complex-mediated histone deposition is dispensable for higher-order organization of Arabidopsis heterochromatin, I show that CAF-1 plays a central role in chromocenter formation. During postgermination development in cotyledons when centromeric and pericentromeric repeats cluster progressively into chromocenter structures, these repetitive elements but not euchromatic loci become enriched in H3.1 in a CAF-1- dependent manner. This enrichment, together with the appropriate setting of repressive histone post-translational marks, contributes to chromocenter formation, identifying chromatin assembly by CAF-1 as driving force in formation and maintenance of genome structure. Finally, while absence of HIR or CAF-1 complexes sustains viability, only the simultaneous loss of both severely impairs nucleosomal occupancy and plant development, suggesting a limited functional compensation between the different histone chaperone complexes and plasticity in histone variant interaction and deposition in plants.

No description available.

Epigenetic mechanisms play tremendous roles in the development and management of neural processing. The important mechanisms include inactivation of transcription via methylation, histone modification via acetylation/deacetylation, and miRNA regulation. These modifications allow for expression or silencing of genes, without manipulation of nucleotide sequence. An individual's internal and external environments provide input for quotidian epigenetic regulation. Aberrations in the form of regulation have been increasingly linked to neurological disorders, in addition to the established correlation to tumorigenesis. In recent years, deviations from normal epigenetic patterns have been observed in cases of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The brains of patients with AD have been shown to display significantly less methylation overall, as compared to age-matched controls. Of particular concern, the methylation, which normally keeps the promoter of the APP gene silenced, occur far less frequently in AD patient allowing for the progression of amyloid deposition and subsequent tau pathology. In addition to the hypomethylation present in AD, many AD cases present with a concurrent hypoacetylation on histones in the hippocampus. There is strong evidence suggesting that the reduced levels of acetylation are due to over-activation of histone deacetylases. Post-mortem examinations of the brains of AD patients have shown that the brain-derived neurotrophic gene, which is crucial for neural processing associated with maturation and memory, has low levels of acetylation halting its transcription. While low levels of methylation and acetylation seem to contribute to the pathogenesis of AD, regulatory miRNA levels can have adverse effects whether they are aberrantly reduced or increased. Patients with AD tend to show abnormally augmented expression of miRNA-125b, miRNA-128, and miRNA-9 in the hippocampus, while a reduced expression of miRNA-107. Deregulation of these miRNAs have been linked to the progression of AD and include amyloid deposition, tau pathology, and oxidative stress through inflammatory processes. The latter quandary of oxidative stress has been shown to be crucial for the early progression of AD. Reactive oxygen species disallow the methylation of genes due to steric hindrance at the CpG islands of DNA where DNA methyltransferases act. Research shows that increases in oxidative stress are correlated to decreases in methylation, which allows for APP expression. While these alterations to normal epigenetic patterns occur internally, there is a breadth of changes that the external environment imposes to exacerbated AD pathogenesis. Most heavily studied of these external environmental factors is lead exposure. There is a strong correlation between lead exposure in individuals who carry the ApoE4 gene and increased mRNA transcription of the APP gene. Lead is thought to demethylate the promoter of the APP gene and allow for amyloid processes to occur. Inadequate nutrition, specifically deficits in choline and folate, has been linked to hypomethylated states due to an inefficient "methylation/remethylation cycle" leading to an accumulation of homocysteine characteristic of AD. With the emphasis epigenetic deregulation has in the progression of AD, epigenetic treatments need to be seriously considered as therapeutic avenues. Current drugs treat the symptoms and acute conditions of AD, but through epigenetic modifications, the pathology of the diseases can be directly addressed. Potential therapeutic avenues include the use of methyl donors, highly specific histone deacetylase inhibitors, and miRNA biomarkers. Methyl donors can help alleviate the hypomethylated state and prevent further APP expression and amyloid deposition. Currently, the histone deacetylase inhibitors are being used as global inhibitors, but have adverse effects including non-specific and premature cell death. By further researching these inhibitors and finding a mechanism to attack specific histone deacetylases (such as HDAC6 in AD), the efficacy of this aspect of treatment will be greatly increased. The current use of miRNAs as epigenetic regulators to turn off unwanted genetic expression is ineffective due to a major problem of effective delivery to target zones. By using the gene sequences of miRNAs as biomarkers, an AD patient's genomic sequence can be mapped, marking which areas require regulation. This process is necessary because of the inter-individuality of miRNA regulation between each case of AD. Also, the problem of some anti-miRNA molecules not being able to cross the blood brain barrier needs to be addressed using a novel transport mechanism, as direct brain injections are not feasible. The simplest, and highly effective, therapeutic avenue is a healthy lifestyle. Daily exercise and proper nutrition hinder inflammatory process and oxidative stress and can prevent progression of AD through allowing higher brain perfusion for cognitive functioning.