Redox-active ligands deliver redox equivalents to impart multi-electron functionality at 3d metals that typically undergo to one electron redox events. It was proposed that 3d metals with redox-active ligands could form unusually well-defined catalysts for C-C bond forming reactions to mimic palladium-type reactivity. Therefore, several new complexes containing an iron or cobalt with redox-active ligands were synthesized and tested for their ability to form new C-C bonds. A bis(iminosemiquinone) iron (III) complex was able to homocouple aryl Grignards using dioxygen as the terminal oxidant. However, ligand redistribution prevented detailed mechanistic study of the C-C bond forming reaction and led to catalyst degradation. To address the challenges seen in the iron catalyst a new cobalt electron transfer (ET) series containing a pincer-type bis(phenolate) N-heterocyclic carbene ligand (CoNHC) was synthesized. Studies indicate the CoNHC ET series spans multiple-electrons by corporative metal and ligand redox. These complexes were evaluated for cross-coupling of alkyl halides and aryl Grignards. Mechanistic studies imply that the low cross-coupling yields were due to ligand degradation. However, CoNHC catalytically activate cross-couples ether nitriles and aryl Grignards via a novel C-O bond activation leading to a new C-C bond. Findings concerning redox-active ligands on iron and cobalt for C-C bond forming reactions and implications for future research are discussed.

This thesis focuses on the study of nickel boride as a catalyst in various coupling reactions. The nickel boride catalyst was investigated in three different coupling reactions, the experiments aimed at understanding the activity and catalytic properties of nickel boride. We successfully synthetized the nickel boride catalyst, alongside with the cobalt and iron boride. Different methods of preparation were compared and we concluded, that the differences in the preparation, such as solvent and atmosphere, influence the activity of the catalyst in coupling reactions. We found that the most suitable solvent for preparing nickel boride is anhydrous methanol, thus we proceeded our research with this catalyst. In the case of the Sonogashira cross-coupling we found that the homocoupling of the acetylene starting material is a side reaction we could not exclude. However, with the proper solvent it is possible to shift the reaction towards homocoupling, without the formation of the heterocoupling product. Thus, we decided to investigate the Glaser homocoupling between acetylenes. In the case of the Sonogashira coupling only TLC was used to examine the reaction mixture. However, in the case of Glaser coupling, after pre-investigations we developed a gas chromatography method for analyzing the reaction mixtures. We learned, that the homocoupling only results in trace amounts (2-4%) of product. Previous investigations in our research group showed, that the nickel boride could catalyze Suzuki-Miyaura-type couplings. Examining this reaction all three metal borides were tested; however, the reactions only led to the desired product with nickel boride. Analyzing the reaction with gas chromatography we learned that the choice of solvent influences the stability of the starting materials and the formation of side products. Reactions with different starting materials, in different solvents, with different bases were analyzed. The effect of microwave irradiation was also examined. Based on the results we concluded, that with nickel boride it is not possible to achieve high yields in coupling reactions.

A series of boron-containing conjugated microporous polymers with hierarchical porous structures have been readily prepared via typical transition metal-catalyzed coupling reactions. The distribution of micro- and mesopores in the networks as well as the specific surface areas are tunable via tailoring the structures of the building blocks. The distinct capability of the resulting Lewis acid-based neutral porous polymers to selectively capture fluoride ions provides a high-efficiency conversion into stable anionic porous polymers. For the first time, fluoride anion binding to boron atoms in a solid sample was essentially characterized by solid-state 11B MAS NMR spectroscopy, clearly revealing such an efficient conversion from a neutral network to a negatively charged one only through Lewis acid–base adduct formation. Upon a simple ion-exchange process, various heavy metal cations were facile to be loaded into the networks of the anionic porous polymers. Furthermore, the cobalt(II)-loaded porous polymers were shown to promote the stoichiometric homocoupling reactions of the different aryl Grignard regents, and exert distinct size selectivities for the homocoupling products, highly dependent on their porous structures. Such a successful loading strategy might be used for design and synthesis of new types of zeolite-like porous polymers with desirable catalytic properties for a certain organic transformation, as well as other functional materials.

Diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP)-based polymers currently rank among the best performing organic materials for high charge carrier mobility applications due to their high structural planarity and the simple synthetic access. Through chemical modifications on DPP-based polymers, the type of charge carrier transport (p-type, n-type or ambipolar) and the charge carrier mobility can be both modulated. In this thesis, the synthesis of a new n-type dithiazolyldiketopyrrolopyrrole (TzDPPTz)-based copolymer PTzDPPTzF4 with tetrafluorobenzene (F4) as comonomer is reported. PTzDPPTzF4 has a deeper lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy level compared to the existing dithienyldiketopyrrolopyrrole (ThDPPTh)-based copolymer PThDPPThF4 due to the electron-deficient thiazole flanking units on the bicyclic DPP core. Moreover, the influence of homocoupling (hc) defects and backbone conformation on the properties of PTzDPPTzF4 is systematically investigated. Lastly, in order to further modulate the structural and electrical properties of DPP-based copolymers, polar side chains and comonomers with a different electron-withdrawing ability are introduced to the polymer backbone. In detail, a series of PTzDPPTzF4 polymers with similar molecular weight but varying TzDPPTz hc content from 0.6 – 12.4% is prepared via direct arylation polymerization (DAP) for the investigation of the hc-property relationship. Hc defects are found to red-shift the absorption, decrease the photoluminescence, and lower the LUMO energy level. In contrast, an influence on the film morphology or electron mobility is not observed. In order to study the conformation-property relationship, a structural variation in the DPP monomer is explored, i.e. the replacement of Tz by Th. To this end, a detailed comparative study of the properties between PTzDPPTzF4 and PThDPPThF4, which are prepared via DAP and have both comparable molecular weight and hc content, is presented. It is found that the replacement of Tz flanking units by Th flanking units on the DPP core has significant impact on the backbone conformation due to the occurrence of intramolecular hydrogen bonds, and thus strongly influences the opto-electronic and structural properties of the two polymers. PThDPPThF4 exhibits a stronger aggregation ability, a higher degree of crystallinity, a lower degree of paracrystallinity and an increased long-range order, which finally translates into a 20 times higher field-effect electron mobility. Finally, comonomer and side chain variations of DPP-based polymers are carried out for their potential use in thermoelectric investigations. Through the optimization of the polymerization conditions, a number-average molecular weight of 19.1 kg/mol is achieved for ThDPPTh-based polymers with single-oxygen side chains and F4 as comonomer. In addition, two ThDPPTh-based copolymers with biEDOT as comonomer are synthesized, which contain polar triethylene glycol (TEG) side chains as well as branched aliphatic side chains in different ratios. In summary, the economically efficient and ecologically green DAP method is demonstrated to be an efficient and versatile synthetic tool for copolymerizing TzDPPTz or ThDPPTh monomers bearing either aliphatic or polar side chains with either electron-rich or electron-deficient comonomers.

[ES] De forma general, el trabajo realizado durante la presente tesis doctoral se ha enfocado al diseño y optimización de catalizadores heterogéneos basados en Pd y Ru soportado sobre óxidos metálicos y materiales carbonosos. A fin de optimizar los catalizadores se han relacionado los ensayos catalíticos con las propiedades físico-químicas de los materiales mediante diferentes técnicas (XPS, HAADF-STEM, Fotoluminiscencia, IR, ¿) siguiendo un proceso iterativo de ensayo-caracterización-optimización. En concreto, la presente tesis doctoral se puede dividir en dos partes en función de las reacciones estudiadas: 1. Durante la primera parte, capítulo 3, se han preparado catalizadores basados en Au, Pd y Pd(OH)2 soportado sobre diferentes óxidos metálicos con objeto de realizar el homoacoplamiento oxidativo de benzoato de metilo en ausencia de disolvente y empleando oxígeno como único agente oxidante. Se ha conseguido identificar la especie activa como clústeres de Pd mediante el empleo de espectroscopia de infrarrojo de adsorción de CO y fotoluminiscencia. Con este conocimiento se ha podido diseñar un pre-tratamiento de activación específico para maximizar la actividad catalítica con el cual se ha logrado obtener un rendimiento catalítico similar al del catalizador homogéneo de Pd(OAc)2. 2. En la segunda parte de la tesis, se ha estudiado la hidroformilación de 1-hexeno empleando catalizadores alternativos basados en Ru. En particular, durante el capítulo 4 se han desarrollado catalizadores de Ru soportados sobre una matriz orgánica-inorgánica compuesta por un biopolímero natural, quitosán, y SiO2 detectándose un efecto sinérgico entre las especies lixiviadas de Ru (TON > 3000, TOF > 550 h-1) y los grupos funcionales del quitosán que ha sido estudiado mediante espectroscopia de absorción de rayos-X. Finalmente, el objetivo del capítulo 5 ha sido estabilizar las especies de Ru mediante un tratamiento térmico de pirólisis. Empleando un biopolímero natural se ha conseguido diseñar un catalizador estable, capaz de hidroformilar selectivamente el enlace terminal de olefinas de diferente tamaño de cadena con alta regioselectividad (S > 90%) que puede ser re-usado. Gracias al uso de técnicas espectroscópicas avanzadas se ha podido relacionar la actividad intrínseca de las especies de Ru soportadas identificándose a los átomos aislados de Ru como los más activos (TOF > 12.000 h-1). / [CA] This doctoral thesis has focused on the design and optimization of heterogeneous Pd and Ru catalysts supported on metallic oxides and carbon materials. In order to optimize the catalysts a relationship has been stablished between the observed reaction kinetics and the physico-chemical properties of the materials by means of different characterization techniques (XPS, HAADF-STEM, photoluminescence, IR ¿) following an iterative kinetic test-characterization-optimization process. In particular, this thesis can be divided in two different parts depending on the reaction studied: 1. In chapter 3, different catalysts based on Au, Pd and Pd(OH)2 supported on a variety of mixed oxides have been prepared with the aim of performing the oxidative homocoupling of methyl benzoate in absence of solvent with molecular oxygen as the only oxidising agent. In this case, Pd clusters have been identified as the active species by means of photoluminescence and infrared spectroscopy using CO as probe molecule. After identifying the active species, a specific activation pre-treatment could be designed in order to maximize the catalytic activity which is on par with the homogeneous Pd(OAc)2 counterpart. 2. In the next chapter (Chapter 4), the hydroformylation of 1-hexene using alternative Ru based catalysts was studied. In particular, a series of hybrid organic-inorganic Ru catalysts composed of a natural biopolymer, chitosan, and SiO2 were developed which showed and interesting synergistic effect between the lixiviated species of Ru and the functional groups of chitosan. This effect was studied by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. The catalyst showed a high activity (TON > 3000 and TOF > 550 h-1) as well as a high regioselectivity towards formation of lineal aldehyde (S > 95%). 3. Finally, the objective of chapter 5 was to go one step further trying to stabilize the Ru species observed in previous chapter by means of a pyrolytic thermal treatment. Thus, with the aid of a natural biopolymer and a carbonaceous support the goal of designing a reusable and stable catalyst, able to selectively catalyse the hydroformylation of terminal olefins with variable chain length and high regioselectivity (S > 90%) towards the lineal aldehyde was successfully achieved. In this case, the intrinsic activity of the different Ru supported entities was studied by advanced spectroscopy techniques allowing the identification of isolated single Ru atoms as the most active catalytic centers (TOF > 12000 h-1) / [EN] En general, el treball realitzat durant la present tesi doctoral s'ha centrat en l'optimització de catalitzadors heterogenis basats en Pd i Ru suportat sobre òxids metàl·lics i materials carbonacis. Amb l'objectiu d'optimitzar els catalitzadors, s'ha establert una relació entre els resultats dels experiments catalítics i les propietats fisicoquímiques dels materials mitjançant la utilització de diferents tècniques (XPS, HAADF - STEM, fotoluminescència, IR,...) seguint un esquema iteratiu d'assaig - caracterització - optimització. En concret, la present tesi doctoral es pot dividir en dos parts, en funció de les reaccions estudiades: 1. En la primera part, capítol 3, s'han preparat catalitzadors basats en Au, Pd i Pd(OH)2 suportat sobre diferents òxids metàl·lics amb l'objectiu de realitzar la reacció d'homoacoblament oxidatiu del benzoat de metil en absència de dissolvent i utilitzant oxigen com a únic agent oxidant. S'ha aconseguit identificar els clústers de Pd com a espècies actives de la reacció gràcies a l'espectroscòpia d'infraroig d'adsorció de CO i a la fotoluminescència. D'aquesta forma, s'ha pogut dissenyar un pretractament d'activació específic per aconseguir maximitzar l'activitat catalítica. S'han aconseguit obtenir uns valors de rendiment catalític similars al presentats pel catalitzador homogeni Pd(OAc)2. 2. En la segona part de la tesi, s'ha estudiat la hidroformilació de l'1-hexè utilitzant catalitzadors alternatius basats en Ru. En concret, en el capítol 4, s'han desenvolupat catalitzadors de Ru suportats sobre una matriu orgànica - inorgànica constituïda per un biopolímer natural, quitosan, i SiO2. Així doncs, s'ha pogut detectar un efecte sinèrgic entre les espècies lixiviades de Ru (TON > 3000 and TOF > 550 h-1) i els grups funcionals del quitosan. Dit efecte s'ha estudiat per mitjà de l'espectroscòpia d'absorció de rajos X. Finalment, l'objectiu del capítol 5 ha consistit en estabilitzar les espècies de Ru per mitjà d'un tractament tèrmic de piròlisis. Utilitzant un biopolímer natural, s'ha aconseguit dissenyar un catalitzador estable, capaç d'hidroformilar selectivament i amb una elevada regioselectivitat (S> 90%) l'enllaç terminal d'olefines de diferent longitud; i poder ésser posteriorment reutilitzat. A partir de tècniques d'espectroscòpia avançades, s'ha pogut relacionar l'activitat intrínseca de les espècies de Ru suportades, i s'han identificat els àtoms aïllats de Ru com aquelles espècies més actives (TOF > 12.000 h-1). / Escobar Bedia, FJ. (2021). Catalizadores metálicos subnanométricos altamente eficientes en reacciones de formación de enlaces C-C [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/172628

Une nouvelle synthèse stéréosélective d’acides phosphineux-borane est décrite par hydrolyse d’aminophosphines borane préparées par réaction d'organolithiens sur un complexe d'oxazaphospholidine-borane dérivé de l'éphédrine. Par réaction avec un acide fort, ces acides phosphineux-borane conduisent aux oxydes de phosphines secondaires P-chirogéniques correspondants avec de très bons rendements (90%) et rétention complète de la configuration sur l'atome de phosphore. Les oxydes de phosphines secondaires ont été utilisés en catalyses d'hydrogénation et de Heck asymétriques par des complexes de rhodium et de palladium. Dans une seconde partie, une nouvelle synthèse d’oxydes de phosphines P-chirogéniques substitués par des groupements ortho halogénophényles a été décrite. Le principe de cette synthèse repose sur l’addition d’un oxyde de phosphine secondaire sur un benzyne préparé in situ à partir de dihalogénobenzène. Ces oxydes de phosphines o-halogénés ont été utilisés en synthèse de nouveaux dérivés fonctionnalisés en position ortho par des réactions d’homocouplage par le cuivre ou d’hétérocouplage catalysée par des complexes de palladium. Dans une dernière partie, la préparation de clusters de cuivre chiraux a été réalisée en utilisant des monophosphines P-chirogéniques. La structure par rayons X, le dichroïsme circulaire, et les propriétés photophysiques des clusters chiraux sont présentés. / A new stereoselective synthesis of phosphinous acid boranes is described by hydrolysis of aminophosphines boranes prepared by reaction of the oxazaphospholidine complex derived from ephedrine with organolithium reagents.By reaction with a strong acid, the phosphinous acid boranes lead to the corresponding P-chirogenic secondary phosphine oxides in very good yields (90%) and with complete retention of the configuration at the phosphorus atom. The secondary phosphine oxides have been used in asymmetric hydrogenation and intramolecular Heck cyclisation using rhodium and palladium complexes, respectively. In a second part, a new synthesis of P-chirogenic ortho-halogenophenyl phosphine oxides is described. The principle of this synthesis is based on the addition of secondary phosphine oxides to a benzyne, prepared in situ from dihalogenobenzene. The o-halogenophenylphosphine oxides were used to prepare many functionalized derivatives in ortho position by reactions such as homocoupling with copper or heterocoupling catalyzed by palladium complexes. In the last part, the synthesis of chiral copper clusters was performed using P-chirogenic monophosphines. The X-ray structure, circular dichroism, and the photophysical properties of the chiral clusters were presented.

A series of boron-containing conjugated microporous polymers with hierarchical porous structures have been readily prepared via typical transition metal-catalyzed coupling reactions. The distribution of micro- and mesopores in the networks as well as the specific surface areas are tunable via tailoring the structures of the building blocks. The distinct capability of the resulting Lewis acid-based neutral porous polymers to selectively capture fluoride ions provides a high-efficiency conversion into stable anionic porous polymers. For the first time, fluoride anion binding to boron atoms in a solid sample was essentially characterized by solid-state 11B MAS NMR spectroscopy, clearly revealing such an efficient conversion from a neutral network to a negatively charged one only through Lewis acid–base adduct formation. Upon a simple ion-exchange process, various heavy metal cations were facile to be loaded into the networks of the anionic porous polymers. Furthermore, the cobalt(II)-loaded porous polymers were shown to promote the stoichiometric homocoupling reactions of the different aryl Grignard regents, and exert distinct size selectivities for the homocoupling products, highly dependent on their porous structures. Such a successful loading strategy might be used for design and synthesis of new types of zeolite-like porous polymers with desirable catalytic properties for a certain organic transformation, as well as other functional materials.