Gut microbial communities exist in the vast majority of animals, and often form complex symbioses with their hosts that affect their host's biology in numerous ways. To date, the majority of studies of these complex interactions have focused on the nutritional benefits provided by the microbiota; however, the natural microbiota can also influence development, immunity, and the metabolism of its host. Apis mellifera, the honey bee, harbors a distinctive bacterial community that is present in individuals from distant locations around the world; however, the basis of the bee-microbiota association is unknown. This dissertation explores properties of the bacterial microbiota within bees, including its persistence of this association, mechanisms of transmission, localization through host ontogeny, and basic metabolic capabilities that define and maintain the symbiotic relationship. Apis and Bombus species (honey and bumble bees) share a distinct bacterial microbiota that is not present in other bees and wasps. Close analysis of the A. mellifera microbiota revealed consistent communities in adult worker gut organs and a general lack of bacteria in larvae. Contact between workers and with hive materials were identified as major routes of transmission for bacterial communities, showing the importance of social behavior in this association. Genomic analysis of a gut bacterium co-sequenced with the Bombus impatiens genome revealed it as a divergent lineage of Gammaproteobacteria, and deletions of conserved metabolic pathways, reduction in genome size, and its low GC content all suggest that the bacterial species has had a long association with its host.

The overall aim of the thesis has been to introduce Personal Mobile Grids (PMGrids) as a novel paradigm in grid computing that scales grid infrastructures to mobile devices and extends grid entities to individual personal users. In this thesis, architectural designs as well as simulation models for PM-Grids are developed. The core of any grid system is its resource scheduler. However, virtually all current conventional grid schedulers do not address the non-clairvoyant scheduling problem, where job information is not available before the end of execution. Therefore, this thesis proposes a honeybee inspired resource scheduling heuristic for PM-Grids (HoPe) incorporating a radical approach to grid resource scheduling to tackle this problem. A detailed design and implementation of HoPe with a decentralised self-management and adaptive policy are initiated. Among the other main contributions are a comprehensive taxonomy of grid systems as well as a detailed analysis of the honeybee colony and its nectar acquisition process (NAP), from the resource scheduling perspective, which have not been presented in any previous work, to the best of our knowledge. PM-Grid designs and HoPe implementation were evaluated thoroughly through a strictly controlled empirical evaluation framework with a well-established heuristic in high throughput computing, the opportunistic scheduling heuristic (OSH), as a benchmark algorithm. Comparisons with optimal values and worst bounds are conducted to gain a clear insight into HoPe behaviour, in terms of stability, throughput, turnaround time and speedup, under different running conditions of number of jobs and grid scales. Experimental results demonstrate the superiority of HoPe performance where it has successfully maintained optimum stability and throughput in more than 95% of the experiments, with HoPe achieving three times better than the OSH under extremely heavy loads. Regarding the turnaround time and speedup, HoPe has effectively achieved less than 50% of the turnaround time incurred by the OSH, while doubling its speedup in more than 60% of the experiments. These results indicate the potential of both PM-Grids and HoPe in realising futuristic grid visions. Therefore considering the deployment of PM-Grids in real life scenarios and the utilisation of HoPe in other parallel processing and high throughput computing systems are recommended.

The potential harm caused to bees and other pollinators by the widespread use of neonicotinoids has the capacity to pose a real and immediate threat to both the environment and humans. The benefits that bees and other pollinators provide, combined with the potential of harm they may face, are important enough to warrant a more comprehensive testing apparatus by which to evaluate threats to their population. Environmentally, bees and other pollinators are an important piece of ecosystemic balance--from pest management to pollination of plants that are a part of many species' diet. Anthropologically speaking, the way of life humans have been accustomed to and even need in order to survive is also largely dependent on a healthy population of bees and other pollinators; up to 70% of plants and vegetables we eat are directly a result of pollinators, and one third of every mouthful humans consume is attributed to pollinators. Without a healthy population of pollinators, the agricultural variety and nutritional availability would drastically decrease. Moreover, these agricultural products pollinators are responsible for also affect billions of dollars on both a national and global level. In many ways, the economic stability of the United States is at an equal risk as the pollinators. For example, an inability to produce many of our own agricultural staples would leave local and regional livelihoods disrupted and change the United States' import/export position. Moreover, this is not just a national problem. Pollinators are responsible for over 150 billion dollars globally in agriculture. Many of the nutrients humans need to be healthy would be in short supply. While scientists continue to study the possible effects of neonicotinoids on pollinators, how should policy makers respond? In this thesis, I argue that the various and drastic ways in which pollinators impact our environment and every day life, combined with the potential of the harsh threats their collapse would entail, warrant a more stringent approach to the evaluation of potential harms like neonicotinoids. An ethical risk assessment, as I define one, would be an appropriate tool to apply to this situation to guide policy makers in drafting regulations even in the absence of scientific certainty. Ethical risk assessments are a tool by which to evaluate the moral and ethical responsibilities in a whole host of different scenarios, one of which is neonics and pollinators. In other words, this ethical risk assessment will be used as an instrument by which to determine whether or not there is a sufficient risk to the population of pollinators, thus determining whether regulation is appropriate. Through application of this risk assessment, I will show that in this particular case regulation is appropriate due to the risks neonics pose to pollinators in light of the evidence that we do have. I develop a set of criteria for an ethical risk assessment. The criteria are a result of a combination of existing literature and some novel connections I draw here. This list, I argue, is what constitutes an ethical risk assessment. Ethical risk assessment, grounded in Utility Theory, is appropriate here because of its calculative apparatus and sociopolitical applicability.

Rainhas de Apis mellifera acasalam com 10-20 zangões. O parentesco médio entre as operárias filhas da rainha, portanto, atinge valores bastante divergentes entre operárias da mesma patrilínea (r=0,75) e operárias de diferentes patrilíneas (r=0,29), o que deve resultar em conflitos de interesse no que diz respeito à reprodução. Neste estudo abordamos esta questão sociogenética ao nível molecular, por análise de microssatélites em dois ninhos de abelhas africanizadas, envolvendo mais especificamente a influência paterna na ativação dos ovários em operárias que ficaram órfãs após perda da sua rainha. Detectamos existência de uma preferência dentre as linhagens paternas, quanto à ativação dos ovários destas operárias e a correlação do número de ovaríolos em operárias com o seu genótipo. Utilizando o primer A88 e A24 conseguimos distinguir um mínimo de 14 patrilíneas diferentes na população de operárias dos ninhos. A partir da análise de zangões filhos das rainhas dos ninhos 65 e 67, conseguimos identificar os alelos maternos. Além disso, conseguimos distinguir 20 patrilíneas diferentes em zangões filhos de operárias órfãs do ninho 65, e 14 patrilíneas diferentes em zangões filhos de operárias órfãs do ninho 67. Analisando o grau de ativação de ovários em operárias órfãs com idade de 15 e 21 dias, detectamos diferenças entre as colmeias com respeito ao status ovariano dessas. Correlacionando-se o grau de ativação do ovário e número de ovaríolos, com as patrilíneas detectadas, foi possível distinguir patrilíneas cuja ativação ovariana e número de ovaríolos foi baixo (patrilíneas com os alelos 4/1, 4/2, 4/3, 4/4 - alelos referentes aos microssatélites A88/A24), como também, se encontrou patrilínea onde ambos aspectos foram elevados (principalmente patrilínea com os alelos 2/4). E essas mesmas patrilíneas com alto status ovariano foram mais representadas após a orfandade, através de seus filhos. E por fim, através da análise estatística, pôde-se comprovar pelo teste exato de Fisher, que essas diferenças de representatividade das patrilíneas antes, e após a orfandade, não ocorreram aleatoriamente. Esses resultados mostram a alta eficiência da metodologia empregada e, possibilitaram comprovação de que há diferenças genéticas na probabilidade de operárias se tornarem poedeiras. / A honeybee queen normally mates with 10-20 drones. Mean kinship relations, therefore, attain quite distinct values when comparing kinship between workers within the same patriline (r=0,75) to the corresponding values for workers between different patrilines (r=0,29). This discrepancy results in conflicts with respect to reproductive interests. In the present study, we employed microsatellites as molecular markers to approach this sociogenetic question in two honey bee nuclei. In detail, we asked whether differences in ovary activation, previously observed in queenless workers, can be attributed to patriline differences. Additionally, we asked whether differences in ovariole numbers in worker bees also correlate with their patriline genotype. We obtained the following results: Utilizing microsatellite primer A88 and A24 we could distinguish a minimum of 14 different worker patrilines in the two nuclei. The two maternal alleles for nuclei 65 and 67 were identified from the genotypes of the queen’s sons. We could distinguish at least 20 different patrilines in the sons of queenless workers in nucleus 65, and 14 patrilines in the sons of queenless workers in nucleus 67. Analyzing the degree of ovary activation in 15 and 21-day-old queenless workers, we detected differences in ovary status between the two nuclei. When correlating the degree of ovary activation and number of ovarioles in marked queenless workers, we were able to detect patrilines whose ovary status and ovarioles number was low (patrilines with the alleles 4/1, 4/2, 4/3, 4/4 - microsatellites A88/A24), in contrast, there were also patrilines where both parameters were high (especially in patriline with the alleles 2/4). It was exactly these patrilines which produced most offspring (drones) after queen removal. And finally, by Fisher’s exact test, we could show that these representation differences before and after orphanhood did not occur randomly. These results show the high efficiency of the methodology used, and made it possible to demonstrate that there are genetic differences in the probability of workers to become egg layers.

Apis mellifera é uma espécie de abelha bastante estudada sob diferentes perspectivas, tanto em pesquisas básicas como aplicadas. Possui uma natureza singular associada não só a interesses econômicos como produção de cera, mel, própolis, geléia real, pólen, mas também, por seu potencial agrícola como polinizador. Esta espécie tem sido alvo de muitos estudos morfométricos, principalmente pela sua importância ecológica, pela sua grande capacidade de adaptação, sua ampla distribuição e por serem capazes de se estabelecer eficientemente em diversos ambientes. A morfometria geométrica permite uma análise rigorosa da variação da forma de uma determinada estrutura em organismos de diversos tamanhos, principalmente utilizando métodos de estatística multivariada, além de ser capaz de avaliar a instabilidade no desenvolvimento de um organismo. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo estudar as variações da forma e tamanho em asas e corbículas de operárias de Apis mellifera, provenientes das 5 regiões geográficas do Brasil, utilizando análises morfogeométricas. A existência de padrões de variação de forma e tamanho das abelhas africanizadas no Brasil obtidos há 16 anos em estudo clássico realizado por Diniz-Filho e Malaspina, possibilitou uma análise espaço-temporal comparativa com os resultados obtidos utilizando recursos tecnológicos atuais para a avaliação de dados morfométricos, bem como, verificar por meio das análises de assimetria flutuante a plasticidade fenotípica no tamanho e forma da asa e corbícula dessa espécie, possibilitou ainda, avaliar se condições adversas relacionadas às ações antrópicas influenciam no aumento de desvios na simetria bilateral desses caracteres morfológicos. Foi realizada uma amostragem abrangendo as 5 regiões geográficas do Brasil, pela forma das asa e análises multivariadas verificou-se que existe um padrão geográfico entre as populações de Apis mellifera no Brasil (P < 0,001). Essas variações geográficas podem ser devidas à grande extensão territorial, além da possível associação das diferenças entre ecorregiões. Verificou-se, também, a presença de assimetria flutuante na forma das asas e das corbículas de Apis mellifera em todas as populações estudadas, porém, na análise multivariada e assimetria do tamanho não obteve significância em algumas populações, constatando-se que para estudo de assimetria e distribuição populacional a forma da asa e das corbículas é a análise mais indicada e que apresenta maior precisão. / Apis mellifera is bee specie very studied under different perspectives, as for basic studies to applied ones. They have a singular nature, not only associated to economic issues as wax, honey, propolis, royal jelly and pollen production, but also for their agricultural potential as pollinators. This specie has been long aimed for morphometric studies, because of its ecological importance, easy capacity of adaptation, large distribution and for being able of efficient establishment in diverse environments. The geometric morphometric allows rigorous analyses in shape variation of a given structure in organism of diverse sizes, especially when using multivariate statistics methods, enabling the evaluation of instability in the development of an organism. The present study aim the variations of shape and size in wings and pollen basket from workers of Apis mellifera, acquired at 5 geographic regions of Brazil, using morphogeometric analyses. The existence of variation patters in shape and size of Africanized bees in Brazil, obtained 16 years ago in classic study made by Diniz-Filho and Malaspina, made possible a comparative spatialtemporal analyses with the results obtained in this study, using updated technology resources for evaluation of morphometric data, as well as the phenotypic plasticity exam of size and shape in wings and pollen basket of this specie, using fluctuating asymmetric analysis, and evaluate if diverse conditions made by anthropomorphic actions has influence on the deviation increase among bilateral symmetry of this morphological characters. The sample was made including 5 geographic regions of Brazil. By the wings size shape and multivariate analyses, it was verified the existence of a geographic pattern among Brazilian Apis mellifera populations (P< 0,001). Those geographical variations may be caused due to the big territorial expansion, alongside with the possible association of different ecoregions. It was also verified floating asymmetric in the shape of wings and pollen basket from Apis mellifera in all studied populations, however, in the multivariate analyses the asymmetry in shape was not significant in some populations, showing that, for studies of asymmetry and populational distribution, the shape of wings and pollen basket is the most indicated and precise analyses.

No description available.

Através da coleta de pólen, néctar e água as abelhas sociais conseguem suprir as exigências nutricionais para a manutenção da colônia e crescimento das crias. Esses insetos necessitam de reservas de alimento suficientes para atender a seu próprio sustento e das crias em desenvolvimento. Se tiver falta de alimento disponível na natureza, as colmeias enfraquecem. A carência de pólen no campo tem se tornado um grande problema para os apicultores. Uma alimentação artificial que suplemente essa carência ajuda a diminuir as perdas em épocas críticas. Porém, para que essa alimentação seja eficaz tanto quanto a alimentação natural, essas dietas artificiais devem suprir as necessidades nutricionais, e serem palatáveis a essas abelhas. O objetivo do nosso trabalho foi desenvolver e testar, uma dieta que seja o mais próximo possível da realidade dessas abelhas, ou seja, próximo ao Beebread - pão da abelha, em relação à palatabilidade e ao valor nutricional. Os experimentos foram realizados no Apiário Experimental do Departamento de Genética da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto USP com colmeias de abelhas Africanizadas (Apis mellifera). Foi produzido um inóculo fermentado à base dos microrganismos que ocorrem naturalmente no Beebread para que posteriormente pudesse ser usado para fermentar a dieta proteica artificial. Para tal, foram adicionamos 10 gramas de Beebread recém-coletado dos favos de uma colmeia, a 300 mL de xarope de sacarose 50% (v/v) em frasco de vidro, com tampa solta para permitir saída de gás da fermentação. Após 28 dias de armazenamento em estufa (35ºC), notou-se o surgimento de várias bolhas na superfície, indicando a produção do gás carbônico. Para os testes em laboratório, 100 abelhas recém-emergidas foram coletadas e introduzidas em gaiolas de confinamento, onde foram alimentadas por um período de sete dias com as dietas D1, (controle positivo - mistura de 5 g de Beebread e 4 mL de água), dieta D2 (controle negativo - xarope de sacarose 70%), dieta D3 (Dieta proteica) ou Dieta D4 (Dieta proteica fermentada). A dieta proteica consistiu de 20 g de levedura de cana, 16,7 g de farinha de soja, 43,3 g de farelo de arroz, e 20 g de sacarose. Foram feitas oito repetições desse experimento. Verificamos as taxas de consumo e preferência das dietas D3 e D4, através de medições dos pesos das sobras de cada dieta. A taxa de sobrevivência foi analisada contando-se as abelhas sobreviventes durante o período de 28 dias. Foi retirada amostras de hemolinfa de 20 abelhas confinadas nas gaiolas, para a análise da concentração proteica utilizou-se o método descrito por Bradford e leitura em um espectrofotômetro. Realizamos testes qualitativos através de gel SDS-PAGE corado com Coomassie Brilliant Blue, onde detectamos as bandas das principais proteínas, como a Vitelogenina (Vg) e Lipoforina (Lp). Para testes no campo, foram utilizados seis núcleos padronizados e dispostos em balanças digitais. Dois núcleos foram alimentados durante 60 dias com a dieta D3 e dois núcleos com D4 (100 g por semana); os dois núcleos restantes não receberam alimentação suplementar. Avaliamos mudanças no peso dessas colônias, a área de cria aberta (CA), a área de cria operculada (CO) e o consumo de cada dieta. Para os testes de preferência, foram escolhidos três núcleos, onde as dietas D3 e D4 foram oferecidas simultaneamente (50 g de cada dieta). O peso da sobra dessas dietas foi medido de dois em dois dias e anotado para análises posteriores. Após três dias de alimentação, não havia diferença estatística entre as dietas proteicas comparado ao controle positivo, p=0,809 e p=0,437, respectivamente no parâmetro quantidade de proteína na hemolinfa. Em relação ao controle negativo as duas dietas (D3 e D4) e o controle positivo foram significativamente superiores (p=0,007). Já com sete dias de alimentação, verificou-se que tanto a dieta D3 quanto a dieta D4, foram significativamente inferiores ao controle positivo (p0,001 e p=0,007, respectivamente). A dieta D4 foi significativamente superior à dieta D3 (p=0,021) no parâmetro proteína na hemolinfa. Através da análise da densitometria das bandas do gel, observamos que a Dieta D4 resultou em significativamente mais proteína em relação à Dieta D3 (p=0,0027). Ao observarmos a densitometria das bandas de Lp, verificamos que não houve diferença estatística entre estas duas dietas (p=0,927). A taxa de sobrevivência das abelhas que se alimentaram das dietas D1, D3 e D4 foi significativamente superior à sobrevivência das abelhas alimentadas somente com sacarose (D2), (p0,001). Para este parâmetro não houve diferença significativa entre as dietas artificiais (D3 e D4) e o controle positivo (D1) (p=0,188). O consumo da dieta D4 foi significativamente superior em relação ao consumo da dieta D3 (p=0,002). Em relação à preferência, houve a mesma tendência observada para o consumo (p 0,001). No campo, a dieta D4 foi mais consumida do que à dieta D3 (p0,001). Não encontramos diferenças na preferência para as duas dietas (p=0,850). Verificamos que o núcleo 1, (alimentado com a dieta D3), obteve um aumento não significante em relação a área de CA e CO, p = 0,100. Em relação ao núcleo 2, (alimentado com a dieta D3), notamos um pequeno aumento, porém não significativo (p=0,12) na área total de cria depois dos primeiros 15 dias. Porém mesmo com a alimentação artificial (Dieta D3), houve uma enxameação por abandono. No núcleo 3, (alimentado com a dieta D4), houve um aumento significante, de CA. O núcleo 4, alimentado com a dieta D4, aumentou de peso, sendo necessário passar de núcleo para ninho. No núcleo 5 (grupo controle), houve uma queda brusca de CO no 45º dia para o 60º dia, sendo que esta colônia no final do mapeamento continuou com a mesma quantidade de CO que no início. No núcleo 6 (grupo controle), podemos observar que essa colônia sofreu várias oscilações referente as áreas de cria, porém não houve diferenças no final do experimento. Concluímos que em épocas de escassez alimentar, dietas artificiais proteicas fermentadas, além de serem mais palatáveis as abelhas, aumentam a quantidade de proteína no hemolinfa e a quantidade cria na colmeia. / By collecting pollen, nectar and water, social bees are able to take care of their nutritional needs for colony growth and maintenance. Adult bees need sufficient food reserves for their own sustenance and to produce brood. If there is a lack of food in nature, the colonies weaken rapidly. Pollen is their only source of protein, lipids, minerals and vitamins. A lack of pollen in the field is becoming a major problem for beekeepers. An artificial diet supplement can overcome this lack of natural food and help reduce losses during critical periods. However, in order for this type of diet to be as effective as natural food sources, these artificial diets need to supply all nutritional necessities and also be palatable for the bees. Our objective was to develop and test a diet that is as close as possible to the natural food of the bees (beebread) in terms of palatability and nutritional value. It also needed to be of low cost so that the beekeeper could afford to use it in his apiaries. The experiments were conducted with Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera). An inoculum was prepared from beebread. We added 10 g of recently harvest beebread to 300 mL of 50% (v/v) sucrose syrup in a sterilized glass bottle, that was loosely capped in order to allow the fermentation gasses to escape. After 28 days in an incubator (35ºC), we noted that bubbles had formed on the surface of the diet, indicating CO2 production. The diets were tested in the laboratory in small cages filled with 100 recently emerged adult worker bees. The cages were maintained in a dark incubator at 34ºC during seven days and fed with beebread, sucrose syrup, protein diet, or fermented protein diet. The protein diet consisted of 20 g of cane sugar alcohol yeast, 16.7 g soy flour, 43.3 g rice meal, and 20 g sucrose. Eight repetitions were made for each of these diets. We examined the consumption and preference for the fermented and unfermented protein diets by weighing the unconsumed diet. The survival rate was determined during 28 days in the cages. Hemolymph was collected from 20 bees from each cage for the protein content analysis, using the Bradford assay, with a spectrophotometer. Qualitative analyses were made of the proteins in the hemolymph with an SDS-PAGE gel stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue; the main comparison was of the storage proteins vitellogenin and lipophorin. Field tests of the diets were made with five frame nucleus colonies maintained on digital scales. The colonies were fed for 60 days on fermented or unfermented protein diet (100 g/week), or no supplement (control). The colony weight, open brood area, sealed brood area and diet consumption were measured. Two colonies were tested for each diet condition. Preference tests were run with the fermented and unfermented protein diets (50 g each) in three nucleus colonies. After feeding for three days, the caged-bee hemolymph protein levels were similar in the comparison between the two protein diets and the beebread diet (p=0.809 and p=0.437). Both artificial diets were superior to sucrose alone (p=0.007). After feeding for seven days, both protein diets were inferior to beebread (p0.001 and p=0.007). However, the fermented diet was superior to the unfermented protein diet (p=0.021). In the analysis of proteins in the protein separation gel, the fermented diet gave more protein than the unfermented protein diet (p=0.0027). The lipophorin levels did not differ in bees fed with the fermented versus unfermented diet (p=0.927). However, the vitellogenin levels were significantly higher in the bees fed the fermented diet. Survival rates were higher for bees fed beebread or either of the protein diets, compared with bees fed only sucrose (p0.001). There was no significant difference in survival for bees fed one of the protein diets compared to beebread (p=0.188). The fermented diet was consumed at a significantly greater rate, compared to the unfermented diet (p=0.002). Preference for these diets followed the same trend (p 0.001). In the field, the fermented diet was consumed at a greater rate (p0.001). However, when side by side comparisons were made in the same colony, the consumption did not differ (p=0.850). One of the colonies fed with the unfermented protein diet had a small, non-significant, increase in open and sealed brood areas (p = 0.100). A second colony fed with the same diet absconded after 15 days. One of the colonies fed with the fermented diet had a significant increase in open brood area. A second colony fed on the same diet grew considerably and had to be transferred to a larger hive. One of the control colonies had a strong reduction in sealed brood from day 45 to 60, ending up with about the same amount as at day 0. The other control colony (no protein supplement) varied considerably in brood area and had about the same amount as at the beginning of the experiment. We conclude that fermented protein diets are more palatable, increase protein levels in the hemolymph and the amount of brood in the colonies.

The dissertation on the influence of temperature and humidity of the environment on the reproduction of the honey bee (Apis mellifera) describes the effect of the observed physical quantities on the entire bee during the growing season. Three habitats were monitored under different conditions. The measuring devices were always located inside and outside one colony of each habitat. In cooperation with colleagues from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, ČVUT in Prague, the physical parameters monitoring was extended by monitoring the sound and weight of the hives - hive assemblies at the site located at the Agricultural Faculty of the University of South Bohemia. The data collection system in beehives was designed as a fully autonomous modular system. Measured data was processed and evaluated by statistical programs. The results showed that the hives observed differ in the number of bee queens found in the growing season and also in the number of frames found. Near-fetal temperatures were measured for correct development of the bee (32 °C to 36 °C). Colonies in the observed periods of 2014, 2015 and 2016 had to actively increase the relative humidity inside the hive in spring and summer. The colony reacts to changes in air temperature by varying intensity of sound. The results revealed the differences between the intensity of bee sounds in different temperature conditions. The highest sound intensity was detected at temperatures below 10 ° C (36.71 W.m-2), the lowest being at temperatures above 29.4 °C (26.25 W.m-2). The correlation coefficients were very low (r = 0.180) to medium (r = 0.463) and the correlation coefficient (r = 0.555) changed with a change in the temperature group. In order to evaluate the optimal conditions for honeybee rearing, the temperature and humidity monitoring can be used. The most suitable temperatures were in the range (29.5-34.3 °C) and temperatures above 34.4 °C. In terms of humidity, the temperature range (20-29.4 °C) and (29.5-34.3 °C) are the most appropriate. Changes in the observed values also affect the queen's bee in the colony. The data obtained from the long-term monitoring of these variables can help us to construct a THI index for bees, which would be a suitable tool to evaluate the optimal conditions for bees.

No description available.

The importance of European honey bees in improving fruit set, yield and fruit weight of kiwifruit on the central east coast of Australia was investigated. Field investigations were carried out using different bee saturations and different types of male pollen parents. These investigations confirmed the importance of honey bees in kiwifruit fruit set, yield and fruit weight. However, the results suggested that increasing bee activity alone may not increase pollination of kiwifruit by honey bees. Many factors need to be understood before introducing bees into the orchard. Bees were more effective during the early part of the flowering period, and bee activity varied according to the sex of the vine, planting design and the time of day. The type of male pollen parents also influenced fruit size and quality. Flowers pollinated by different pollen parents were assessed for pollen tube growth and histochemical changes. The resulting fruit were also examined for weight and seed numbers. Honey bees play the major role in the size and yield of kiwifruit, but the design of male vines, their age and type of male pollen may also contribute. The kiwifruit pistil also possesses important features that can be considered as adaptations to insect pollination. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)