Current theories of sexual harassment do not account for all instances of sexual harassment (e.g., not man enough harassment) or third party reactions to sexual harassment such as manager or coworker perceptions of sexual harassment or interactions with the target of sexual harassment. Perhaps taking a step back from specific sexual harassment theories and looking at more general theories of discriminatory behavior can provide some guidance toward a more overarching theory of sexual harassment. The current study applied the Stereotype Content Model (SCM; Fiske, Cuddy, Glick & Xu, 2002) and Behaviors from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes (BIAS) Map model (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2007) to women who are sexually harassed and the resulting third party behavioral reactions, including perception of sexual harassment. This study attempted to establish the initial relationships between the evaluation of the female target with regard to her competition and status to the other variables in the model: stereotyping (i.e., how observers think about the target - warmth and competence), prejudice (i.e., how observers feel about the target - pity, admiration, envy, contempt) and behavioral reactions (how observers act toward the target - active facilitation, passive facilitation, active harm, passive harm). Higher status targets were perceived as more competent than lower status targets. Competition did not have an effect on perceptions of the target's warmth. Competition and status did not predict emotions and behavioral reactions as hypothesized; however many other relationships predicted by the model between stereotypes, emotions, behavioral reactions and perceptions of sexual harassment were found here, although not hypothesized in the current study. Targets who were perceived as warm and competent elicited more facilitation and less harm than those who were perceived as less warm and less competent. Targets that were admired and pitied elicited more facilitation whereas targets that were contempted or envied elicited more harm. Additionally, warmth, competence, admiration, and pity were positively related to perceptions of sexual harassment, whereas envy and contempt were negatively related to perceptions of sexual harassment. Targets who were perceived as having been sexually harassed elicited more facilitation and less harm. Thus, the model is still useful in understanding how stereotypes (warmth and competence) and emotions (envy, admiration, pity, and contempt) relate to third party behavioral reactions to sexual harassment and perceptions of sexual harassment. Given that competition and status did not predict stereotypes, emotions, behavioral reactions and perceptions of sexual harassment as expected, it may be that these effects are more a function of individual factors such as gender and hostile sexism, rather than out-group evaluation (competition and status). In the current study men and those higher in hostile sexism were less likely than women and those lower in hostile sexism to perceive that the target had been sexually harassed, to perceive the target as warm and competent, to feel admiration or pity for the target, or to engage in facilitation behaviors. Additionally, men and those higher in hostile sexism were more likely than women and those lower in hostile sexism to feel contempt or envy toward the target and to engage in harm behaviors. Future research should examine other methods of manipulating perceptions of targets' competitiveness and status other than occupational characteristics to examine the impact of these out-group characteristics on stereotypes, emotions and behavioral reactions in the context of sexual harassment.

Recently, models of aggressive behavior have begun to appreciate the influence of both psychological and biological predictors of maladaptive behavior. The aim of the current project was to clarify the roles that the noradrenergic system (i.e., norepinephrine metabolite, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyglycol [MHPG]) and characteristics of the rearing environment play in different expressions of aggression (i.e., hostile and instrumental). It was predicted that higher concentrations of MHPG would be related to increased self-reports of aggressive behavior, especially hostile forms, while expressing aggression during an analog aggression task would lead to decreases in MHPG. It was also predicted that concentrations of MHPG would interact with childhood environment characteristics to predict aggressive behavior in youth. A sample of 68 male youth, aged 7 to 17, were recruited from two agencies in southwest Virginia serving disadvantaged youth. They completed self-report measures on their childhood environment, aggressive and delinquent behaviors, as well as exposure to community violence and negative life events. In addition, youth played a challenging computer game with an alleged "opponent" and lost. Half of the participants were able to retaliate after the game against their "opponent." Salivary MHPG was measured once before and three times after the game. A series of ANOVAs and hierarchical regressions were conducted in order to test the main and interactive effects of punitive childhood experiences and baseline MHPG on aggressive behavior. Findings failed to support the primary predictions; however, results of supplemental analyses showed significant associations of aggression with negative mood, negative family atmosphere, and increased baseline MHPG after controlling for negative family atmosphere. Also, parental punishment and rejection significantly predicted delinquency, and a significant interaction effect indicated that higher recovery concentrations of MHPG placed rejected youth more at risk for engaging in delinquent behavior. Results of the present study help to enhance understanding of the differences in biological and psychological correlates of aggression and delinquency in at-risk youth, and inform prevention and intervention efforts. / Ph. D.

Background: Anxiety disorders constitute the most prevalent subgroup of mental health conditions. While anxious individuals are more widely known as being socially withdrawn and shy, recent research highlights a rather non-prototypical image, one that is aggressive. The main goal of this event-related brain potentials (ERPs) study is to augment our knowledge of the neurophysiological responding of hostile attribution biases of anxious individuals to ambiguous situations. Methods: Using pre-collected data from a sample of 68 undergraduate and community-based adult participants, this study aims to explore the N400 deflection utilising Gagnon et al.’s (2016) Hostile Expectancy Violation Paradigm with anxious individuals, and whether the N400 deflection persists after controlling for aggression. Results: A more negative amplitude was observed in response to a critical word that mismatched rather than matched with the character’s expected hostile intention. Regression analyses revealed that anxiety scores negatively predicted the N400 following the mismatched expected hostile intention while controlling for reactive aggression suggesting that the violation of hostile expectancy about the intention behind an ambiguous provocative behavior is more pronounced among anxious participants. Conversely, in the hostile condition, the overall model was significant, although anxiety scores did not account for the overall effect, reactive aggression did. Conclusion: This study provides preliminary evidence that anxiety symptoms are uniquely related to hostile attribution bias independent of reactive aggression. Future research should aim to replicate these findings with a clinically diagnosed sample of individuals with anxiety disorders. / Contexte : Les troubles anxieux constituent un sous-groupe le plus répandu dans les conditions de santé mentales. Malgré cette prévalence, ils ne reçoivent pas la même reconnaissance en raison des comorbidités, une étiologie inconnu et une manque de traitement spécifique. Récemment, la littérature scientifique s'est concentré sur la neuro-imageries de l`anxiété. Par contre, une compréhension plus complète sur comment l'électrophysiologie et le stress interagissent et mène aux symptômes de l’anxiété est requis. Méthodologie : À l'aide de données pré-recueillies auprès d'un échantillon de 68 participants, cette étude visait à étudier la déflexion N400 en utilisant le Paradigme de la Violation d'Espérance Hostile de Gagnon et al. (2016) chez les individus adultes présentant de l'anxiété. Résultats : dans la condition non-hostile, nous avons observez une déflection négative significative du N400 chez les individus qui ont un score de BIAH plus élevée, en contrôlant pour l’agressivité. Les analyses de régressions ont démontré une déflection négative du N400. En d’autres mots, les adultes qui ont plus d'anxiété étaient surpris suivant un contexte hostile et une intention non hostile car il s'attendait à une contexte hostile. Tandis que dans la condition hostile, le modèle global s’est avéré significatif, par contre l’agressivité réactive a tenu compte de l'effet global et n’ont pas les scores d’anxiétés. Conclusion : À notre connaissances, aucune articles scientifiques à explorer le BAIH avec des mesures électrophysiologique du cerveaux, comme preuve des influences des symptômes d'anxiété sur la cognition. Cette recherche à augmenter notre connaissance sur la présence du BAIH chez les adultes avec des symptômes d’anxiété en examinant des marqueurs électrophysiologique du cerveaux. Les implications et limites de l’étude sont également discutées. Reproduire ces résultats avec un échantillon cliniquement diagnostiqué de personnes souffrant de troubles anxieux, devrait donc être l'une des priorités de la recherche future.

Research has documented a tendency among youth to have biased interpretations of ambiguous information. For example, anxious youth are more likely to interpret ambiguous situations as negative or threatening (e.g., Cannon & Weems, 2010). Similarly, when interpreting social cues, aggressive youth exhibit hostile attribution biases more often than non-aggressive youth in response to ambiguous situations (e.g., Crick & Dodge, 1996). Research suggests that youth with anxiety and aggression exhibit differential physiological reactivity in response to threat. However, research has yet to examine the linkages amongst physiological reactivity to ambiguous situations, anxiety, and aggression in adolescents. The current study had several interrelated aims. Youths’ physiological responding (i.e., heart rate and skin conductance) to a series of animated vignettes depicting ambiguous social situations was examined. Anxiety, aggression, and hostile attributional bias (HAB) were also tested as predictors of differential physiological responding to the vignettes, as well as the interrelations between anxiety and HAB and aggression and HAB. Eighty youth completed a physiological assessment in which they viewed a series of hypothetical situational vignettes while their heart rate and skin conductance were measured. Participants also completed questionnaires measuring symptoms of anxiety, aggression, and HAB. Results indicated that there was differential physiological responding to the vignettes such that participants’ heart rates showed a pattern of deceleration followed by acceleration across time. Physiological responses were predicted by HAB such that those with high HAB had higher heart rates and exhibited more pronounced deceleration and acceleration across time than those with low HAB. There was support for anxiety as a significant predictor of responses among those participants with higher levels of HAB such that heart rates remained elevated with very little deceleration across time, suggesting a pattern of physiological hyperarousal and blunted reactivity. However, aggression did not predict differential physiological responding to the ambiguous vignettes, nor did HAB moderate the association between aggression and physiological responding. These findings add to the literature by contributing to knowledge about physiological responding to ambiguous situations and associations between this link with anxiety, aggression, and HAB.

The health care of those who work in remote places associated with hostile environments is reviewed, concentrating on the offshore oil industry and Antarctic populations. An understanding of associated environmental hazards is essential for adequate health care and particular attention is paid to the hyperbaric environment and to environmental heat and cold. The basic medical problems in remote health care are evaluated in three related studies. The first examines 2,162 personnel who required medical evacuations from the offshore structures of four North Sea operating companies, the second with 5,894 presentations from offshore at the A&E department of Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, while the third examines 100 annual medical reports from British Antarctic Survey stations.

Previous research supports the idea that individuals high in trait anger tend to experience more hostile attribution bias. According to the Integrative Cognitive Model, cognitive factors, such as rumination, may increase the risk of hostile attribution bias and any subsequent aggressive behaviors. Sex differences are apparent in rumination and anger expression. The present research explored the potential role trait rumination plays in hostile attribution bias as well as potential conditional effects of sex on this relationship. Participants were asked to complete a number of self-report measures and vignettes of ambiguously hostile situations adapted to improve reliability. Hypotheses were largely supported and trait anger rumination was significantly predictive of hostile attribution bias; however, conditional effects of sex were non-significant. The adapted hostile attribution bias measure had improved reliability and may have utility for a survey-based method to assessing hostile attribution bias. Findings may further our understanding of hostile interpretations and potential for subsequent aggressive behaviors in high trait ruminators in ambiguous situations as well as lead to potential areas of intervention to reduce anger and anger rumination.

<p>Företagsförvärv är ett fenomen som på senare år ökat markant i Sverige. Med företagsförvärv menas att kontrollen över ett företag överförs från en aktieägargrupp till en annan. Ett sätt att förvärva ett annat företag är genom uppköp. Det finns i sin tur tre olika tillvägagångssätt där fusion utgör ett av dem och som uppstår då två bolag av liknande storlekt går samman under gemensamt ägande. Sammanslagningen sker genom förhandling mellan de olika bolagen och deras aktieägare. De förvärv som sker på fientligt vis kallas för Hostile takeover (fientligt företagsförvärv). Denna form av förvärv är mer vanligt i USA och Storbritannien än i övriga Europa. De flesta fallen av fientliga förvärv görs genom att förvärvaren lämnar ett anbud direkt ämnat till målföretagets aktieägare i hopp om att få köpa deras aktier. Deras mål är att överta kontrollen över företaget utan att blanda in målföretagets ledning eller styrelse, som motarbetar affären. Motiven bakom ett företagsförvärv kan vara många. Exempelvis kan ett företag vilja utöka sin produktportfölj, expandera geografiskt eller nå ut till en ny kundgrupp. I de flesta fallen är det undervärderade företag som inte lyckats maximera sin vinst som utsätts för fientliga bud. Resultatet av ett fientligt förvärv leder oftast till en stor omstrukturering av det förvärvande företaget för att uppnå högre lönsamhet.</p><p>För att skydda sig mot att förvärvas på ett fientligt sätt finns det ett antal motåtgärder som ett företags styrelse och ledning kan använda sig av. Dessa motåtgärder bygger på två olika synsätt. Den ena kallas för ledningens självintresse och den beskriver hur ledningen använder sig av de olika motåtgärderna för att rädda sitt eget skinn på bekostnad av aktieägarna. Det andra tankesättet bygger på att ledningen tänker på aktieägarnas bästa vid användande av motåtgärderna. Detta synsätt kallas för aktieägarnas intresse. När vi definierar aktieägarnas aktievärde menar vi på det sätt aktieägarna kan få ut den maximalt möjliga avkastningen vid en specifikt uppkommen situation.</p><p>Vår frågeställning i denna uppsatts är hur användandet av de olika motåtgärderna påverkar aktieägarnas aktievärde vid ett fientligt företagsförvärv eller anbud. Syftet är att beskriva detta på ett lättförståligt vis och göra aktieägarna uppmärksamma på att det kan finnas en intressekonflikt mellan aktieägarnas bästa och företagsledningen samt styrelsens bästa. För att möjliggöra denna uppsats har vi studerat litteratur, vetenskapliga forskningsartiklar, sökt på Internet samt utfört intervjuer.</p><p>En slutsatts som vi har kunnat dra är att vi skulle vilja skilja på ägarnas aktievärde på kort respektive lång sikt. Vissa av metoderna är bra för att öka värdet för ägandet på kort sikt medan andra metoder är bättre på lång sikt. Vissa motåtgärder är uppenbart dåliga för ägarnas aktievärde. En av våra intervjupersoner, Gunnar Ek på Aktiespararna, erkände han att man utan tvekan kan misstänka att det finns stunder då styrelse och företagsledning tänker mer på sig själva än vad som är bäst för företaget och ägarna. I dessa fall kan vi tydligt relatera till ledningens självintresse sätt. Vi spår även att fenomenet med fientliga företagsförvärv kommer att fortsätta öka i Sverige.</p> / <p>Acquisition of a company is a phenomena that has increased during the latest years in Sweden. Hostile takeovers is a type of acquisitions that are made in a hostile way. The controll of the company is moved from one group of stockholders to another. One way of acqire another company is to buy it. There are three types of procedures of buying a company. Fusion is one, when two companies of the same size becomes one. The fusion precede with negotiations between the companies and the stockholders. The acquires that are made in a hostile way is callaed hostile takeover. These types of acusitions are more common in USA and in Great Britain than in the rest of Europe. In the most common case of hostile takeovers, the acqusitior gives a bid to the stockholders to make them sell their stocks.The acquisitiors intrest is to take over the power of the company, whithout dealing with the board of the company. The aim of the takeover can vary. Maybe the acquisitors want to expand their portfolio of products, reach out over a new market theratory, or get into contact with new customers. The target company for a hostile takeover is often a company that are underestimated and had faild to maximise their profit. A hostile takeover often results in a big change in the company’s organisation to make a better result</p><p>When a hostile takeover arise there are several defences that the board or the management can take. These defences are built upon two diffrent approaches. One of them is called the ”Management entrenchment hypothesis”, the board is acting more in their own interest than in the stockholders interests. The other approach is to achieve the stockholders interests. When we define the stockholders interests we mean that way that the stockholders will get the highest possible profit in the specific case.</p><p>Our question at issue is in which way the different defences relates to the stockholders interests. The purpose is to describe the relation in an easy way and to make the stockholders aware of that there is a conflict betwwen the interests of the management and the stockholders. During the writing of this article we have studied and used litterature, articles in science and research and the Internet. We have also perform some interviews.</p><p>Our conclusion is that we have to seperate the meaning of stockholders interest, depending on wheter it is a short-term interest, or wheter it is a long-term interest. Some defences results in an increase of value in short term, and some in the long-term. also that some of the defences can not been used at all to achieve the stockholders interests. In one of our interviews, Gunnar Ek at Aktiesparana expreses his thought that there is cases in which the board is acting more in their own interest than in the stockholders interests.In this cases we mean that the ”Management entrenchment hypothesis” is used. We also predict that the phenomena hostile takeovers will continue to increase in Sweden</p>

Takeovers are used as a mean for companies to grow and gain entry to new markets. Hos-tile takeovers, apart from the friendly takeovers, is when an acquirer tries to takeover a corporation against the will of management, shareholders and board of directors of the target company. All listed companies run the risk of being a target for a hostile takeover, and to-day many companies are trying to involve actions protecting them from possible threats. Lacking protection can evolve into a costly defense program with actions with fictitious names such as White knight, Pac-man and Poison pills. The purpose with this thesis is to describe and analyze hostile takeovers and hostile takeover attempts in Sweden, and the defense tactics involved in the process. In this thesis a deductive approach will be used, where theories are used as guidance when searching for explanations. On the basis of the defense tactics described in the theory empirical data has been gathered with the purpose of seeing if the expectations reflect reality, and conclusions about their efficiency. The thesis has used a quantitative research method where the focus is on what, where and when. The aim of the thesis is to classify targeted features and count them, with the intent to construct statistical models with an underlying purpose of explaining what is observed. The most frequently used defense tactic used by the target company in a hostile takeover in the Swedish market is to attack the logic of the bid. Around 56 percent of the targets in a hostile takeover or a hostile takeover attempt have used this defense tactic to avoid a hos-tile takeover. The aim with an implemented defense tactic is to avoid a hostile bid or making it impossible for the hostile bidder to proceed with the bid and close the deal. The White knight and White squire defense tactic is the most successful defense tactic when it comes to not finalizing the hostile bid, in 90 percent of the cases the deal is not closed if the target chooses to use a White knight as a defense tactic. A secondary objective with a defense tactic is to force the hostile bidder to increase the bid and pay more for the target company. In the Swedish market, the use of Corporate restructuring as a defense tactic has made the hostile bidder to increase the bid in 67 percent of the cases and the use of Positive public information has forced the hostile bidder to increase the bid in more than half of the cases. The question why these defense tactics are the most frequently used strategies, is explained by two variables. The first one is the cost and simplicity variable, where Attack the logic of the bid and Public information ends up. These defense tactics are cost efficient and can be seen as natural step for the target company when deciding not to approve of the offer made by the acquirer. The second variable is the proven efficiency, where the target knows if implementing this defense tactic the risk of being acquired by the hostile bidder is relatively low, a good example of this is the White knight defense.

No description available.

Företagsförvärv är ett fenomen som på senare år ökat markant i Sverige. Med företagsförvärv menas att kontrollen över ett företag överförs från en aktieägargrupp till en annan. Ett sätt att förvärva ett annat företag är genom uppköp. Det finns i sin tur tre olika tillvägagångssätt där fusion utgör ett av dem och som uppstår då två bolag av liknande storlekt går samman under gemensamt ägande. Sammanslagningen sker genom förhandling mellan de olika bolagen och deras aktieägare. De förvärv som sker på fientligt vis kallas för Hostile takeover (fientligt företagsförvärv). Denna form av förvärv är mer vanligt i USA och Storbritannien än i övriga Europa. De flesta fallen av fientliga förvärv görs genom att förvärvaren lämnar ett anbud direkt ämnat till målföretagets aktieägare i hopp om att få köpa deras aktier. Deras mål är att överta kontrollen över företaget utan att blanda in målföretagets ledning eller styrelse, som motarbetar affären. Motiven bakom ett företagsförvärv kan vara många. Exempelvis kan ett företag vilja utöka sin produktportfölj, expandera geografiskt eller nå ut till en ny kundgrupp. I de flesta fallen är det undervärderade företag som inte lyckats maximera sin vinst som utsätts för fientliga bud. Resultatet av ett fientligt förvärv leder oftast till en stor omstrukturering av det förvärvande företaget för att uppnå högre lönsamhet. För att skydda sig mot att förvärvas på ett fientligt sätt finns det ett antal motåtgärder som ett företags styrelse och ledning kan använda sig av. Dessa motåtgärder bygger på två olika synsätt. Den ena kallas för ledningens självintresse och den beskriver hur ledningen använder sig av de olika motåtgärderna för att rädda sitt eget skinn på bekostnad av aktieägarna. Det andra tankesättet bygger på att ledningen tänker på aktieägarnas bästa vid användande av motåtgärderna. Detta synsätt kallas för aktieägarnas intresse. När vi definierar aktieägarnas aktievärde menar vi på det sätt aktieägarna kan få ut den maximalt möjliga avkastningen vid en specifikt uppkommen situation. Vår frågeställning i denna uppsatts är hur användandet av de olika motåtgärderna påverkar aktieägarnas aktievärde vid ett fientligt företagsförvärv eller anbud. Syftet är att beskriva detta på ett lättförståligt vis och göra aktieägarna uppmärksamma på att det kan finnas en intressekonflikt mellan aktieägarnas bästa och företagsledningen samt styrelsens bästa. För att möjliggöra denna uppsats har vi studerat litteratur, vetenskapliga forskningsartiklar, sökt på Internet samt utfört intervjuer. En slutsatts som vi har kunnat dra är att vi skulle vilja skilja på ägarnas aktievärde på kort respektive lång sikt. Vissa av metoderna är bra för att öka värdet för ägandet på kort sikt medan andra metoder är bättre på lång sikt. Vissa motåtgärder är uppenbart dåliga för ägarnas aktievärde. En av våra intervjupersoner, Gunnar Ek på Aktiespararna, erkände han att man utan tvekan kan misstänka att det finns stunder då styrelse och företagsledning tänker mer på sig själva än vad som är bäst för företaget och ägarna. I dessa fall kan vi tydligt relatera till ledningens självintresse sätt. Vi spår även att fenomenet med fientliga företagsförvärv kommer att fortsätta öka i Sverige. / Acquisition of a company is a phenomena that has increased during the latest years in Sweden. Hostile takeovers is a type of acquisitions that are made in a hostile way. The controll of the company is moved from one group of stockholders to another. One way of acqire another company is to buy it. There are three types of procedures of buying a company. Fusion is one, when two companies of the same size becomes one. The fusion precede with negotiations between the companies and the stockholders. The acquires that are made in a hostile way is callaed hostile takeover. These types of acusitions are more common in USA and in Great Britain than in the rest of Europe. In the most common case of hostile takeovers, the acqusitior gives a bid to the stockholders to make them sell their stocks.The acquisitiors intrest is to take over the power of the company, whithout dealing with the board of the company. The aim of the takeover can vary. Maybe the acquisitors want to expand their portfolio of products, reach out over a new market theratory, or get into contact with new customers. The target company for a hostile takeover is often a company that are underestimated and had faild to maximise their profit. A hostile takeover often results in a big change in the company’s organisation to make a better result When a hostile takeover arise there are several defences that the board or the management can take. These defences are built upon two diffrent approaches. One of them is called the ”Management entrenchment hypothesis”, the board is acting more in their own interest than in the stockholders interests. The other approach is to achieve the stockholders interests. When we define the stockholders interests we mean that way that the stockholders will get the highest possible profit in the specific case. Our question at issue is in which way the different defences relates to the stockholders interests. The purpose is to describe the relation in an easy way and to make the stockholders aware of that there is a conflict betwwen the interests of the management and the stockholders. During the writing of this article we have studied and used litterature, articles in science and research and the Internet. We have also perform some interviews. Our conclusion is that we have to seperate the meaning of stockholders interest, depending on wheter it is a short-term interest, or wheter it is a long-term interest. Some defences results in an increase of value in short term, and some in the long-term. also that some of the defences can not been used at all to achieve the stockholders interests. In one of our interviews, Gunnar Ek at Aktiesparana expreses his thought that there is cases in which the board is acting more in their own interest than in the stockholders interests.In this cases we mean that the ”Management entrenchment hypothesis” is used. We also predict that the phenomena hostile takeovers will continue to increase in Sweden