O presente estudo teve por escopo analisar a jornada de trabalho do cirurgião-dentista sob diferentes aspectos. Os fatores que lastreiam a limitação da jornada no decorrer da história foram abordados, bem como aqueles que autorizam a jornada reduzida, aquém do limite constitucional, para algumas categorias específicas que, em virtude das condições especiais de trabalho, são consideradas profissões penosas extenuantes. A legislação relacionada ao tema foi analisada, mormente a Lei n° 3.999/61, em razão de ser ela fonte de embates jurídicos e decisões conflitantes no Judiciário, porquanto alguns juristas consideram que tal diploma estaria estipulando jornada reduzida para médicos e cirurgiões-dentistas. Insta destacar que, atualmente, haja vista a edição da orientação jurisprudencial n° 53, do Tribunal Superior do Trabalho, a matéria encontra-se pacificada nesse tribunal superior segundo o entendimento de que a citada lei não estipula jornada reduzida. Em que pese tal posicionamento, no presente estudo, por meio de um levantamento de publicações relacionadas aos riscos e às doenças ocupacionais do cirurgião-dentista, bem como de argumentos que fundamentam a jornada reduzida para outras atividades, procurou-se demonstrar que a profissão atende aos requisitos que autorizam a concessão desse benefício. Essa singularidade, no que toca ao desgaste físico e psíquico do trabalhador, justifica, portanto, um tratamento diferenciado. / The purpose of the present study was to analyze the dentist working hours by different aspects. The factors that justify the hour’s limitation in the labor history had been approached, such as those ones which allowed a reduction of hours of work, less than the constitutional limit, for some specific occupations that, due to the special working conditions, were considered arduous and exhausting professions. The legislation related to this subject had been analyzed, in particular the law 3.999/61, since its is the source of legal discussions and conflicting decisions in the Judiciary, whereas some jurists consider that such law would be stipulating a reduction of hours of work for physicians and dentists. It’s important to emphasize that, nowadays, whereas the jurisprudential orientation, edition 53, of the Tribunal Superior do Trabalho, the subject is settled in this superior court, according to the common sense which the cited law does not determine a reduced working hours. Despite of this orientation, this present study, through a survey of publications that were related to the risks and occupational diseases for the dentists, as well as arguments that justify the reduction of hours of work for others activities, attempted to demonstrate that the profession fulfill the requirements for the concession of this benefit. This singularity, concerning the professional’s physical and psychic exhaustion, justifies, therefore, a distinct treatment.

This research mainly discusses the relationship among the hours of work, specific industries, laws and regulations. We hope that the government and firms can understand the status of current hours of work so that it can be the references for them to adopt flexible human resources strategies. The questionnaire survey was adopted for the study. The samples are the experts of human resources. Totally, 350 questionnaires were distributed, and 120 of them are valid samples. Through statistical analysis, the main results of the study could be summarized in the following two parts: 1. There were some significant correlations between the hours of work and industry:¡]1¡^the hours of work of altering work schedule was positively and significantly related to different industry.¡]2¡^The hours of work a week and the pay for overtime were positively and significantly related to different industry.¡]3¡^Part-time schedule may calculate their overtime earlier than other schedules. The altering work schedule needs to report in for duty are more common than other jobs. ¡]4¡^The vacation and leave policy were significantly associated with different industry. 2. Some significant differences between hours of work and laws and regulations were found.¡]1¡^Some of firms¡¦ hours of work are better than mandatory. For example, the hours of work a week, vacation and leave policy.¡]2¡^Some of firms¡¦ hours of work are worse than mandatory. For example, the hours of work a week, vacation, leave, overtime policy.

O presente estudo teve por escopo analisar a jornada de trabalho do cirurgião-dentista sob diferentes aspectos. Os fatores que lastreiam a limitação da jornada no decorrer da história foram abordados, bem como aqueles que autorizam a jornada reduzida, aquém do limite constitucional, para algumas categorias específicas que, em virtude das condições especiais de trabalho, são consideradas profissões penosas extenuantes. A legislação relacionada ao tema foi analisada, mormente a Lei n° 3.999/61, em razão de ser ela fonte de embates jurídicos e decisões conflitantes no Judiciário, porquanto alguns juristas consideram que tal diploma estaria estipulando jornada reduzida para médicos e cirurgiões-dentistas. Insta destacar que, atualmente, haja vista a edição da orientação jurisprudencial n° 53, do Tribunal Superior do Trabalho, a matéria encontra-se pacificada nesse tribunal superior segundo o entendimento de que a citada lei não estipula jornada reduzida. Em que pese tal posicionamento, no presente estudo, por meio de um levantamento de publicações relacionadas aos riscos e às doenças ocupacionais do cirurgião-dentista, bem como de argumentos que fundamentam a jornada reduzida para outras atividades, procurou-se demonstrar que a profissão atende aos requisitos que autorizam a concessão desse benefício. Essa singularidade, no que toca ao desgaste físico e psíquico do trabalhador, justifica, portanto, um tratamento diferenciado. / The purpose of the present study was to analyze the dentist working hours by different aspects. The factors that justify the hour’s limitation in the labor history had been approached, such as those ones which allowed a reduction of hours of work, less than the constitutional limit, for some specific occupations that, due to the special working conditions, were considered arduous and exhausting professions. The legislation related to this subject had been analyzed, in particular the law 3.999/61, since its is the source of legal discussions and conflicting decisions in the Judiciary, whereas some jurists consider that such law would be stipulating a reduction of hours of work for physicians and dentists. It’s important to emphasize that, nowadays, whereas the jurisprudential orientation, edition 53, of the Tribunal Superior do Trabalho, the subject is settled in this superior court, according to the common sense which the cited law does not determine a reduced working hours. Despite of this orientation, this present study, through a survey of publications that were related to the risks and occupational diseases for the dentists, as well as arguments that justify the reduction of hours of work for others activities, attempted to demonstrate that the profession fulfill the requirements for the concession of this benefit. This singularity, concerning the professional’s physical and psychic exhaustion, justifies, therefore, a distinct treatment.

No

Economia / Doctoral Programme in Economics / Estudos empíricos anteriores mostram que quando as decisões são tomadas num contexto de incerteza e quando existem custos de ajustamento lineares ou fixos (não convexos), as empresas não ajustam continuamente o nível de emprego de forma a acomodar choques da procura do seu produto. Consequentemente, emergem períodos de inércia o que é suficiente para produzir histerese. Nesta dissertação estuda-se a existência de histerese da dinâmica do emprego ao nível da empresa e ao nível agregado. Em primeiro lugar, efectua-se uma descrição do padrão de ajustamento do emprego a nível microeconómico e estuda-se a sua relação com três fontes de inércia: i) a existência de custos de ajustamento não convexos; ii) a existência de incerteza na dinâmica da procura agregada; iii) a possibilidade de utilização da margem intensiva de ajustamento do factor trabalho (ajustamento através do número de horas por trabalhador). Segundo, analisamos as implicações agregadas do comportamento microeconómico observado. Se ao nível microeconómico os modelos de histerese oferecem uma boa explicação para a observação empírica, ao nível macroeconómico tem-se revelado mais difícil identificar a existência de histerese na dinâmica do emprego. De facto, as séries agregadas do emprego tendem a ser mais alisadas, e por essa razão, aparentemente inconsistentes coma existência de histerese. No entanto, se tivermos em conta as diferentes propriedades da histerese fraca (histerese ao nível micro) e da histerese forte (histerese ao nível macro) e se considerarmos a existência de empresas heterogéneas, isto é, se o problema da agregação for explicitamente considerado, como deve ser na presença de custos de ajustamento não convexos, então deverá ser possível verificar a existência de sinais de histerese ao nível macroeconómico. A análise empírica foi efectuada com dados mensais de empresas industriais portuguesas ao longo de um período de 11 anos. A amostra contém informação sobre o nível de emprego e sobre o nível de horas de trabalho e sobre um conjunto de outras variáveis que podem ser utilizadas como proxies de choques. No sentido de obter uma primeira aproximação ao processo de ajustamento do emprego, efectuamos uma análise descritiva sobre a variação líquida do emprego e testamos a existência de histerese ao nível da empresa através da estimação de um modelo de resposta assimétrica do emprego, interpretado á luz do modelo de histerese Non-Ideal Relay. De forma a testar a existência de histerese na dinâmica do emprego a nível agregado, aplicamos testes construídos com base em métodos computacionais baseados no modelo de Preisach e no Linear Play Model de histerese. No sentido de comparar os resultados a nível internacional, aplicamos os testes referidos a dados agregados da OCDE e EUROSTAT de 19 países da OCDE.Concluímos que: i) existem sinais claros da existência de inércia ao nível microeconómico causada pela existência de custos de ajustamento não convexos e pela possibilidade de ajustamento através da variação do número de horas de trabalho por trabalhador; ii) os sinais de histerese que normalmente se encontram ao nível microeconómico não se desvanecessem totalmente ao nível macroeconómico; iii) as propriedades de histerese são particularmente relevantes na dinâmica do emprego das empresas pequenas; iv) encontramos evidência significativa sobre a interacção entre a flexibilidade do ajustamento do factor trabalho através da variação do número de horas de trabalho por trabalhador e a existência de histerese no emprego. Ao contrário, não encontramos evidência significativa sobre a interacção entre a existência de incerteza na dinâmica da procura agregada e a existência de histerese no emprego. Estes resultados mostram que a dinâmica do emprego a nível agregado é condicionada significativamente pela existência de um padrão de ajustamento discreto ao nível microeconómico. / Previous empirical studies have shown that when decisions are made under uncertainty and adjustment costs are fixed or linear in structure (non-convex), firms do not permanently adjust employment in order to accommodate demand shocks. Consequent to this, periods of inertia would emerge and that is sufficient to produce hysteresis. This dissertation studies the existence of hysteresis in the dynamic path of employment at the firm and aggregate level. Firstly, we describe the path of micro-level employment and we establish its relationship with three sources of inertia: i) the existence of non-convex costs of adjustment; ii) uncertainty concerning the dynamics of aggregate product demand; iii) utilization of the intensive margin of adjustment of the labor input (adjustment through hours per employee). Secondly, we analyze the aggregate implications of the observed micro behavior. If at the micro level models of hysteresis offer a good explanation for the empirical evidence, at the macro level it has been more difficult to identify the existence of hysteresis in the dynamics of employment. Aggregate series of employment tend to look smoother and, for that reason, they are apparently inconsistent with the presence of hysteresis. However, if we take into consideration the different properties of weak hysteresis (hysteresis at the micro level) and strong hysteresis (hysteresis at the macro level), and if we take into account firms heterogeneity, i.e. if the problem of aggregation is explicitly considered as it should be in the presence of non-convex costs of adjustment, it would still be possible to uncover signs of hysteresis at the macro-level. The empirical analysis was carried out with a monthly panel of Portuguese manufacturing firms spanning a period of eleven years. This dataset has information on both employment and hours of work as well as on a good set of other variables that may be taken as proxies for shocks. To obtain a first insight into the process of employment adjustment, we provide some descriptive statistics on net employment changes, and to test the existence of hysteresis at the micro level we estimate a model of employment asymmetric response with path dependence interpreted under the Non-Ideal Relay model of hysteresis. To test the existence of hysteresis in the aggregate employment dynamics, we apply tests constructed with the help of computational methods based on the Preisach Model and on the Linear Play Model of Hysteresis. To put our results in an international setting, the aggregate analysis was also made with aggregate data from OECD and EUROSTAT. We conclude that: i) there are strong signs of the existence of sources of employment inertia at micro level, caused by non-convex adjustment costs and by the adjustment of labor input through the number of hours per employee; ii) signs of hysteresis commonly found at the micro level, do not completely vanish at the macro level; iii) hysteresis properties are particularly discernible for small firms even if they are less so in the case of larger units; vi) we find strong evidence of the interrelations between the flexibility of the labor input adjustment through hours of work and the existence of aggregate employment hysteresis, but only weak evidence of the interrelations between the existence of uncertainty in the dynamics of aggregate demand and hysteresis. These findings imply that aggregate employment is significantly shaped by lumpy adjustment at the micro level.

Cette thèse de doctorat porte sur l’évolution de la qualité de l’emploi des travailleuses et des travailleurs québécois entre 1997 et 2007. À partir d’une nouvelle typologie, nous analysons les changements dans la qualité de l’emploi des femmes et des hommes et l’impact sur l’écart entre les genres. L’originalité de cette thèse est qu’elle permet de jeter un regard multidimensionnel sur la qualité de l’emploi en considérant quatre dimensions à la fois : la rémunération, la stabilité de l’emploi, la qualification et les heures de travail. Après avoir présenté notre problématique de recherche relative aux inégalités professionnelles entre les genres, l’étude fait une revue des écrits portant sur les principales théories en jeu et sur le concept de la qualité de l’emploi. Ensuite, le cadre conceptuel est présenté afin de situer notre contexte de recherche, les questions générales considérées, la pertinence d’une typologie et les principaux déterminants de la qualité de l’emploi. Le chapitre suivant est consacré à la démarche visant la création d’une nouvelle typologie de la qualité de l’emploi et celle relative au cadre d’analyse. Enfin, nous présentons une analyse des changements de la situation des hommes et des femmes dans les divers types d’emploi en tenant compte de la situation familiale, du niveau de scolarité des personnes et de certaines caractéristiques du marché du travail. Le constat global qui ressort de notre étude est qu’il y a eu une réduction appréciable de l’écart entre les genres au chapitre de la qualité de l’emploi (baisse générale de plus de 30 %). Notre recherche révèle que ce changement s’est surtout produit chez les personnes ayant une scolarité élevée, vivant en couple mais engagées dans des responsabilités familiales limitées. Une bonne partie des changements notés s’expliquent par l’amélioration notable de la qualité de l’emploi des femmes, plutôt que par une baisse de la qualité de l’emploi des hommes. Ces résultats montrent que la situation conjugale et la charge familiale de même que le niveau de scolarité sont des paramètres déterminants des changements observés. / This dissertation examines the evolution of job quality for women and men in Quebec between 1997 and 2007. Using an original typology, we study changes in job quality for women and men, and changes in the gender gap. The novel aspect of this research is that it uses a multidimensional perspective on job quality by considering simultaneously four dimensions: wage level, employment stability, qualification and length of the work week. We first present our research topic, professional inequalities between genders in the labour market, and we review the literature concerning the main theories on gender inequality and job quality. We then present the conceptual framework of our research and our research questions; the relevance of our typology of job quality is then examined, and our approach to data analysis is justified. The analysis parameters chapter is dedicated to the creation of new typology of job quality and to data analysis framework. Finally, we present our results concerning the evolution of the job quality differences between male and female workers, taking into account the family situation, the education level of these individuals and some labor market characteristics. Our study reveals an appreciable decrease of the gender gap in job quality (an overall drop of more than 30 %). Our research shows that changes occur especially for those who have a relatively high level of education, those who live in a couple, and those whose family responsibilities are not too heavy. Most of the changes depend on a notable improvement of job quality for women, and not so much on the deterioration among male workers. Those results show that family situation and level of education, considering together, are significant determinants of the observed changes.

Cette thèse de doctorat porte sur l’évolution de la qualité de l’emploi des travailleuses et des travailleurs québécois entre 1997 et 2007. À partir d’une nouvelle typologie, nous analysons les changements dans la qualité de l’emploi des femmes et des hommes et l’impact sur l’écart entre les genres. L’originalité de cette thèse est qu’elle permet de jeter un regard multidimensionnel sur la qualité de l’emploi en considérant quatre dimensions à la fois : la rémunération, la stabilité de l’emploi, la qualification et les heures de travail. Après avoir présenté notre problématique de recherche relative aux inégalités professionnelles entre les genres, l’étude fait une revue des écrits portant sur les principales théories en jeu et sur le concept de la qualité de l’emploi. Ensuite, le cadre conceptuel est présenté afin de situer notre contexte de recherche, les questions générales considérées, la pertinence d’une typologie et les principaux déterminants de la qualité de l’emploi. Le chapitre suivant est consacré à la démarche visant la création d’une nouvelle typologie de la qualité de l’emploi et celle relative au cadre d’analyse. Enfin, nous présentons une analyse des changements de la situation des hommes et des femmes dans les divers types d’emploi en tenant compte de la situation familiale, du niveau de scolarité des personnes et de certaines caractéristiques du marché du travail. Le constat global qui ressort de notre étude est qu’il y a eu une réduction appréciable de l’écart entre les genres au chapitre de la qualité de l’emploi (baisse générale de plus de 30 %). Notre recherche révèle que ce changement s’est surtout produit chez les personnes ayant une scolarité élevée, vivant en couple mais engagées dans des responsabilités familiales limitées. Une bonne partie des changements notés s’expliquent par l’amélioration notable de la qualité de l’emploi des femmes, plutôt que par une baisse de la qualité de l’emploi des hommes. Ces résultats montrent que la situation conjugale et la charge familiale de même que le niveau de scolarité sont des paramètres déterminants des changements observés. / This dissertation examines the evolution of job quality for women and men in Quebec between 1997 and 2007. Using an original typology, we study changes in job quality for women and men, and changes in the gender gap. The novel aspect of this research is that it uses a multidimensional perspective on job quality by considering simultaneously four dimensions: wage level, employment stability, qualification and length of the work week. We first present our research topic, professional inequalities between genders in the labour market, and we review the literature concerning the main theories on gender inequality and job quality. We then present the conceptual framework of our research and our research questions; the relevance of our typology of job quality is then examined, and our approach to data analysis is justified. The analysis parameters chapter is dedicated to the creation of new typology of job quality and to data analysis framework. Finally, we present our results concerning the evolution of the job quality differences between male and female workers, taking into account the family situation, the education level of these individuals and some labor market characteristics. Our study reveals an appreciable decrease of the gender gap in job quality (an overall drop of more than 30 %). Our research shows that changes occur especially for those who have a relatively high level of education, those who live in a couple, and those whose family responsibilities are not too heavy. Most of the changes depend on a notable improvement of job quality for women, and not so much on the deterioration among male workers. Those results show that family situation and level of education, considering together, are significant determinants of the observed changes.

Several studies have shown that prices differ across regions and affect standards of living substantially. This thesis investigates whether they cause the differential impact of minimum wage on employment and hours of work across the European Union NUTS 2 regions. Based on the existing regional price estimates of 7 European Union countries and publicly available aggregate regional data, estimates of regional price levels for another 11 European Union countries with minimum wage are obtained. The method that was used for this purpose (multiple imputation) enables to use the resulting estimates as an explanatory variable in another regression as it takes into consideration using imputed instead of observed values by correcting the variances of parameter coefficients. The impacts of minimum wage are investigated for 3 groups of people who are at risk of being affected by its increase - young adults (15-19 years), low-educated individuals and low-skilled individuals. The results indicate that the minimum wage has a negative impact on employment that is higher in regions with higher price levels. The negative effect of minimum wage on hours of work was not confirmed.

The Labour Supply of Unpaid Caregivers in Canada, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Meredith Lenore Lilly, Department of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, 2008. As medical care increasingly shifts from the hospital to the home, responsibility for care has also shifted from the state and paid care, to the family and unpaid care. Unpaid caregivers are family members and friends who provide homecare services to recipients in their place of residence without financial compensation, as a result of their close personal relationships. This research tests the multiple hypotheses that unpaid caregiving has an impact on (1) the probability of labour force participation (LFP); (2) hours of labour force work; and (3) earnings by caregivers in Canada. We analyzed the 1996 and 2002 General Social Surveys, applying multivariate probit, logistic, and OLS regression analyses to four equations: 1) the probability of labour force participation; 2) the hourly wage; 3) weekly hours of labour market work; and 4) the probability of being an unpaid caregiver. Results indicate that unpaid caregiving was negatively associated with labour force participation; however, the impact on hours of labour market work and wages was uncertain. Women and men caregivers were impacted differently: only caregiving men in 1996 had significantly lower wages than non-caregivers, and only women in 1996 worked significantly fewer hours in the labour market. When caregiving was defined broadly, only men in 1996 were significantly less likely to be employed than non-caregivers. Yet when we controlled for caregiving intensity in 2002, both male and female primary caregivers were much less likely to be in the labour force than non-caregivers, while secondary caregivers were no less likely to be employed than non-caregivers. We conclude that when caregiving responsibilities are relatively small, individuals seem able to balance both caregiving with employment. Yet when caregiving commitments become heavy, it becomes increasingly difficult to balance employment with caregiving. We make a number of policy recommendations ranging from improving caregiver access to financial supports, formal care and respite services, particularly for primary caregivers. We also encourage the development of workplace legislation and caregiver friendly workplaces for the majority of caregivers who remain in the labour market.

The Labour Supply of Unpaid Caregivers in Canada, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Meredith Lenore Lilly, Department of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, 2008. As medical care increasingly shifts from the hospital to the home, responsibility for care has also shifted from the state and paid care, to the family and unpaid care. Unpaid caregivers are family members and friends who provide homecare services to recipients in their place of residence without financial compensation, as a result of their close personal relationships. This research tests the multiple hypotheses that unpaid caregiving has an impact on (1) the probability of labour force participation (LFP); (2) hours of labour force work; and (3) earnings by caregivers in Canada. We analyzed the 1996 and 2002 General Social Surveys, applying multivariate probit, logistic, and OLS regression analyses to four equations: 1) the probability of labour force participation; 2) the hourly wage; 3) weekly hours of labour market work; and 4) the probability of being an unpaid caregiver. Results indicate that unpaid caregiving was negatively associated with labour force participation; however, the impact on hours of labour market work and wages was uncertain. Women and men caregivers were impacted differently: only caregiving men in 1996 had significantly lower wages than non-caregivers, and only women in 1996 worked significantly fewer hours in the labour market. When caregiving was defined broadly, only men in 1996 were significantly less likely to be employed than non-caregivers. Yet when we controlled for caregiving intensity in 2002, both male and female primary caregivers were much less likely to be in the labour force than non-caregivers, while secondary caregivers were no less likely to be employed than non-caregivers. We conclude that when caregiving responsibilities are relatively small, individuals seem able to balance both caregiving with employment. Yet when caregiving commitments become heavy, it becomes increasingly difficult to balance employment with caregiving. We make a number of policy recommendations ranging from improving caregiver access to financial supports, formal care and respite services, particularly for primary caregivers. We also encourage the development of workplace legislation and caregiver friendly workplaces for the majority of caregivers who remain in the labour market.