Master of Science / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Bronwyn S. Fees / Research has determined three main pathways or orientations to happiness: Meaning, Pleasure, and Engagement (Peterson, Park, & Seligman, 2005). Each has shown to have a substantial impact on an individual's satisfaction with life. These orientations to happiness and their impact on life satisfaction were investigated among 342 emerging adults between the ages of 18-25 attending college. Linear multiple regression was conducted to assess the relationship between Life satisfaction and the three orientations of happiness after identifying the variance explained by demographics factors and personality traits. Results indicated first that each orientation to happiness was empirically distinguishable and related among the emerging adult population. Secondly, both Meaning and Pleasure were significant predictors of Life Satisfaction beyond the variance explained by personality; however, Engagement was not. Congruent with previous personality studies (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996; Lynn & Steel, 2006), life satisfaction was positively correlated with extraversion and negatively correlated with neuroticism. These findings indicate a need to understand how happiness and life satisfaction are filtered through a cultural, developmental, and academic lens. Further studies are necessary to determine the attitudes and behaviors in other countries, other life stages, and emerging adults not attending college.

Master of Science / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Anthony Jurich / Throughout this report, I focused on the effects that the loss of a parent has on an adolescent during the various stages of adolescent development. Drawing upon research already completed on divorce during adolescence, I speculated on the similarities and differences between losing a parent through divorce or death during the adolescent stages of development. Loss by any means is tragic and life altering. However, as I attempted to illustrate, it was even more defining when encountered during the period of adolescence.

Master of Science / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Rick J. Scheidt / This M.S. report provides an evaluative review of research on parental influences on adolescent sexual decision-making. Data show that a significant proportion of never-married female and male teens (ages 15-19) have had sexual intercourse at least once. Adolescent decisions on sexuality and possible consequences such as pregnancy or sexually-transmitted diseases may have profound personal and social impacts. Theoretical and empirical domains of parental influence are reviewed, including communication, morality, family structure and context, parental control, as well as the role of media. This review shows that adolescent sexuality has changed over time due to socio-historical factors and that parents continue to have an influence on their children’s decision-making abilities. Implications for applied professionals and researchers are discussed.

Master of Science / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Karen S. Myers-Bowman / The current study focuses on qualitative data collected from youth and adults in two rural Kansas communities. The focal point of analysis was youth and adults' answers to questions about their experiences working with one another within community-based programs, specifically questions regarding youth's feeling of empowerment within the context of the program. Lerner's theory of developmental contextualism provided a framework for understanding how youth-adult relationships contribute to the development of youth empowerment. Youth voice, a construct related to the youth empowerment literature, appeared in the participants' responses across program sites. Common themes across settings were that teens who had been involved in the program the longest felt especially empowered, that youth became more responsible as a result of participating in the program, and that adults in both program sites fulfilled the six adult roles for youth empowerment that have been established in the research literature. Finally, three constructs significant in the youth development literature (confidence, connection and compassion) emerged as themes in relation to the experiences of the young people in the program. Implications of this study include exploring the impact youth-adult relationships have on adults and investigating how teens as role models or mentors for "littles" impact their feeling of empowerment. Suggestions for replication of this study are also given.

Master of Science / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Mark B. White / Although the processes by which fathers’ presence in the home affect children’s development is not known exactly, ongoing research is making strides toward a greater understanding of this concept (Lamb, 2000). Much of the research conducted on fathering came from researchers’ applying measures and concepts developed to understand mothering. This comparison of fathering and mothering has yielded little understanding of the processes by which father involvement can influence child development and, only in recent decades, has fathering begun to be studied using separate measures designed specifically to understand the unique aspects of fathering (Marsiglio, Amato, Day, & Lamb, 2001). To date, the effects of father involvement in families have been highlighted as a key factor in child growth and development, prevention of poverty, and as a buffer against adolescent risk-taking behaviors (Day & Lamb, 2004). However, in some cases, father involvement can have a very negative effect on children in families, and counter examples of research, showing the deleterious effects of negative father involvement, add an important aspect to fathering studies (Pleck, 2003). Unfortunately, the contradictory opinions and information found in research literature offer practitioners limited information upon which to base their work with fathers and their families. The following is a review of current research literature on father involvement, with an emphasis on families with adolescents. Recent improvements in researchers’ understanding and measurement of father involvement offer practical information for mental health practitioners. The written portion of this report will review current research on father involvement with adolescent children, and then in the presentation, offer suggestions for applying current fathering research to counseling practice. The goal of this report is to offer information that will narrow the research to practice gap for those working with adolescents and their families. Despite the flurry of research on father involvement in recent decades, little appears to have been done to make this research readily available to practitioners. Thus, current practices are limited, in that they are not benefiting from past research on father involvement and are not evolving with improved conceptualization and measurement of fathering activities. Given the current emphasis on evidence-based practice, this report is meant to be an added resource for practitioners, intending to help fathers in families with adolescents. In addition to a critical review of key works focusing on the effects of father involvement on adolescent children, this report will add insight to the work that clinicians do by discussing current perspectives in the fathering literature and offering suggestions for applying these ideas in the talk-therapy arena. Father influence on children during adolescence is the focus of this report due to research evidence showing that fathers influence may become increasingly important in the later stages of child development. (Amato, 1994; Faber, Edwards, Bauer, & Wetchler, 2003).

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Bronwyn S. Fees / When compared to adult mothers, adolescent mothers are more prone to parenting challenges (Whitman et al., 2001). Age is considered influential on a mother’s belief in her ability to successfully organize and execute her parenting plan (Bandura, 1999). The purpose of this study was to examine potential predictors of self-efficacy (determinant of parenting) among first-time mothers applying Belsky’s (1984) parenting framework. Maternal age, maternal depression, available social support and infant temperament were all considered to be potential predictors of maternal self-efficacy. A sample of first-time mothers (N = 115) with no other children in the home with an infant between the ages of four and six months was recruited from local alternative high schools, home and center child care facilities, and various other social services agencies and programs that typically serve new mothers. Participants self-reported on the above variables by completing a survey measuring self-efficacy as well as the hypothesized predictors. Responses were analyzed using group mean comparisons between 3 age groups: mothers 19 years and under (23%); mothers 20-26 years of age (29%); and mothers 26 years of age and older (48%). No significant differences in self-efficacy, perceived infant temperament, social support were found between age groups. Age differences in maternal depression fell just below significance. Maternal income level was significantly (and negatively) correlated with maternal depression, therefore was controlled for in additional analyses. Annual income, depression, and self efficacy were significantly correlated to perceived infant temperament. Mothers with lower incomes, who perceived less social support, who reported higher levels of depression, or had lower levels of self-efficacy were found to rate their infants as more temperamentally difficult. Regression analyses demonstrated that level of perceived social support significantly predicted maternal self-efficacy levels across all age groups. Additionally, infant temperament and maternal depression levels predicted self-efficacy. These findings provide evidence to support the importance of equal accessibility and affordability of social support for all new mothers to assist with the positive transition to parenthood.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Anthony Jurich / This study was aimed at understanding the retrospective experiences of adults who have fathers who are cross-dressers. This study addressed common concerns that partners of men who cross-dress have regarding the impact of fathers’ cross-dressing on children. Previous research indicated that some women in relationships with men who cross-dress actively chose to not have children due to not knowing what effects their partner’s cross-dressing may have on children. Qualitative data from five interviews conducted with adult children of cross-dressing fathers was utilized. Participants reflected upon the following areas: The individual and relational factors that impacted their reaction to having fathers who are cross-dressers; the meanings they created about their fathers’ being cross-dressers; the perceived impact on their social development; and advice they would give to others that may promote the adjustment process for children who have fathers who cross-dress. This study revealed thick description of the adjustment processes for a sample of adult children of cross-dressing fathers. Specifically, the results revealed that the participants adjusted to having fathers who are cross-dressers relatively easily. The closeness of their relationships, the timing and nature of disclosure, their fathers’ comfort levels with being cross-dressers, and the familial response to the fathers’ cross-dressing were all revealed to play important roles in the participants’ acceptance of and adjustment to their fathers’ being cross-dressers. Overall, the participants identified more positive effects than negative in reference to their relationships with their fathers and their social adjustment. This research can assist clinicians in helping couples facing this issue to make informed decisions about having children and in deciding the timing and the preferred circumstances in which fathers should disclose their cross-dressing to their children.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Human Nutrition / David A. Dzewaltowski / The environment can be broadly defined as all things external to an individual. One of the most important environments for children is the home in which they live, particularly with regard to the role that parents play to provide opportunities for healthful development, including adequate physical activity and healthful eating habits. Parents are the gatekeepers of children's healthful opportunities, and are influential in numerous aspects related to obesity. The present paper consists of four chapters related to impacting the home environment for prevention of obesity in children. Although obesity is a complex issue, its cause is energy imbalance, wherein less energy is expended than is consumed. Consideration of both sides of the equation is essential for obesity prevention. In this dissertation, chapter 1 serves as a literature review for the home food environment. A conceptual model is presented as an attempt to place relevant literature in the greater context of environmental variables related to childhood obesity. Frequent family meals have been shown to be protective for child and adolescent obesity, and to promote fruit and vegetable consumption. However, time pressures and lack of cooking skills are potential barriers to this healthful practice. Decreases in television viewing and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption are other home environmental aspects showing promise in the obesity prevention literature. Chapters two and three address the influence of parents on children's obesity-preventive behaviors and relative weight status. These chapters help to inform the planning of interventions to prevent obesity in children. Parent-child shared physical activity may hold promise as a strategy to decrease the likelihood of children becoming obese, and bonding may be an important consideration in programs aimed at obesity treatment or prevention. Chapter four describes the evaluation of an intervention developed to impact the home environment of young girl scouts. This intervention was implemented by troop leaders altering troop-meeting environments toward more healthful opportunities for physical activity and nutrition, and through the delivery of a scouts-tailored curriculum. Results of the intervention showed marked changes to troop meeting environments, but apparently little impact on parents or the home environment.

Attendance at Neonatal Follow-up (NFU) programs is crucial for parents to gain access to timely diagnostic expertise, psychosocial support, and referral to needed services for their infants. Although NFU programs are considered beneficial, up to 50% of parents do not attend these programs with their infants. Non-attending infants have poorer outcomes (e.g., higher rates of disabilities and less access to required services) as compared to attenders. The purpose was to determine factors that predicted attendance at NFU. Naturally occurring attendance was monitored and maternal-infant factors including predisposing, enabling, and needs factors were investigated, guided by the Socio-Behavioral Model of Health Services Use. A prospective two-phase multi-site descriptive cohort study was conducted in 3 Canadian Neonatal Intensive Care Units that refer to 2 NFU programs. In Phase 1, standardized questionnaires were completed by 357 mothers (66% response rate) prior to their infant’s (N= 400 infants) NICU discharge. In Phase 2, attendance patterns at NFU were followed for 12 months. Higher maternal stress at the time of the infant’s NICU hospitalization was predictive of attendance at NFU. Parenting alone, more worry about maternal alcohol or drug use, and greater distance to NFU were predictive of non-attendance at NFU. Attendance at NFU decreased over time from 84% at the first appointment to 74% by 12 months. Two distinct attendance patterns emerged: no or minimal attendance (18.5%) and attendance at all or the majority of scheduled appointments (81.5%). The most frequent point of withdrawal from NFU occurred between NICU discharge and the first scheduled appointment; followed by drop-out following the first NFU appointment. These results provide new insight into patterns of attendance and the maternal-infant factors that characterize attenders/non-attenders at NFU and serve as the critical first step in developing interventions targeted at improving attendance, infant outcomes, and reporting of developmental sequelae.

Attendance at Neonatal Follow-up (NFU) programs is crucial for parents to gain access to timely diagnostic expertise, psychosocial support, and referral to needed services for their infants. Although NFU programs are considered beneficial, up to 50% of parents do not attend these programs with their infants. Non-attending infants have poorer outcomes (e.g., higher rates of disabilities and less access to required services) as compared to attenders. The purpose was to determine factors that predicted attendance at NFU. Naturally occurring attendance was monitored and maternal-infant factors including predisposing, enabling, and needs factors were investigated, guided by the Socio-Behavioral Model of Health Services Use. A prospective two-phase multi-site descriptive cohort study was conducted in 3 Canadian Neonatal Intensive Care Units that refer to 2 NFU programs. In Phase 1, standardized questionnaires were completed by 357 mothers (66% response rate) prior to their infant’s (N= 400 infants) NICU discharge. In Phase 2, attendance patterns at NFU were followed for 12 months. Higher maternal stress at the time of the infant’s NICU hospitalization was predictive of attendance at NFU. Parenting alone, more worry about maternal alcohol or drug use, and greater distance to NFU were predictive of non-attendance at NFU. Attendance at NFU decreased over time from 84% at the first appointment to 74% by 12 months. Two distinct attendance patterns emerged: no or minimal attendance (18.5%) and attendance at all or the majority of scheduled appointments (81.5%). The most frequent point of withdrawal from NFU occurred between NICU discharge and the first scheduled appointment; followed by drop-out following the first NFU appointment. These results provide new insight into patterns of attendance and the maternal-infant factors that characterize attenders/non-attenders at NFU and serve as the critical first step in developing interventions targeted at improving attendance, infant outcomes, and reporting of developmental sequelae.