Accurate determination of the in vitro kinetic parameters Km (Michaelis constant) and Ki (inhibition constant) is critical for the quantitative prediction of in vivo drug clearance and the magnitude of inhibitory drug interactions. A cause of inaccuracy in vitro arises from the assumption that all drug added to an incubation mixture is available for metabolism or inhibition. Many drugs bind non-specifically to the membrane of the in vitro enzyme source. The aims of this thesis were to: 1) investigate the comparative importance of lipophilicity (as log P), and pKa as determinants of the non-specific binding of drugs to human liver microsomes; 2) develop and validate an ANS fluorescence technique for measuring the non-specific binding of drugs to human liver microsomes; 3) characterise the non-specific binding of a large dataset of physicochemically diverse drugs using the ANS fluorescence procedure; 4) evaluate relationships between selected physicochemical characteristics and the extent of non-specific binding of drugs to human liver microsomes and; 5) computationally model the non-specific binding of drugs to discriminate between high binding (fu(mic) less than 0.5) and low binding (fu(mic) greater than 0.5) drugs. The comparative binding of the basic drugs atenolol (log P = 0.1; fu(mic) = 1.00), of propranolol (log P = 3.1; fu(mic) = 0.36 - 0.84), and imipramine (log P = 4.8; fu(mic) = 0.42 - 0.82) suggested that lipophilicity is a major determinant of non-specific binding. In contrast, the comparative binding of diazepam (pKa = 3.3; fu(mic) = 0.69 - 0.80), a neutral compound; and the bases propranolol (pKa = 9.5; fu(mic) = 0.36 - 0.84) and lignocaine (pKa = 9.5; fu(mic) = 0.98), indicated that pKa was not a determinant of the extent of non-specific binding. The non-binding of lignocaine, a relatively lipophilic base, was unexpected and confirmed by the non-binding of the structurally related compounds bupivacaine and ropivacaine. These results implicated physicochemical characteristics other than lipophilicity and charge as important for the non-specific binding of drugs to human liver microsomes. An assay based on 1-anilinonaphthalene-8-sulfonate (ANS) fluorescence was developed using the seven drugs employed in the initial study. Non-specific binding data from equilibrium dialysis and the ANS fluorescence methods were compared and a linear correlation (r2 = 0.92, p less than 0.01) was observed at drug concentrations of 100 and 200 micromolar. The approach was further validated by characterising the microsomal binding of nine compounds (bupropion, chloroquine, chlorpromazine, diflunisal, flufenamic acid, meclofenamic acid, mianserine, triflupromazine, and verapamil) using both binding methods (i.e. equilibrium dialysis and ANS fluorescence). A significant logarithmic relationship (r2 greater than or equal to 0.90) was demonstrated between fu(mic) and the modulus of ANS fluorescence for all drugs and for basic drugs alone at concentrations of 100 and 200 micromolar, while the acidic/neutral drugs showed a significant linear relationship (r2 greater than or equal to 0.84) at these two concentrations (p less than 0.01). The non binding of bupropion provided further evidence that physicochemical properties other than log P and charge were important for non-specific binding of drugs to human liver microsomes. The ANS fluorescence technique was then used to characterise the non-specific binding of 88 physicochemically diverse compounds. In general, acids and neutrals bound to a ‘low’ extent (fu(mic) greater than 0.5) whereas bases bound the full fu(mic) range (0.0001 to 1). Statistically significant relationships were observed between the non-specific binding of bases and log P, the number of hydrogen bond donors and hydrogen bond acceptors per molecule, and molecular mass. Preliminary in silico modeling of the dataset generated by the ANS fluorescence technique, using the program ROCS, provided discrimination of all but one (itraconazole) of the ‘high’ binding bases. However, there were 14 false positives, resulting in low overall prediction accuracy. Taken together, the studies conducted in this thesis provide important insights into the physicochemical factors that determine the non-specific binding of drugs to human liver microsomes.

Vemurafenib is a potent serine/threonine kinase inhibitor and is registered as Zelboraf® for the treatment of metastatic melanomas harboring BRAFV600E mutations. There is a large individual variation in drug response and the side effects observed among patients treated with Zelboraf® has proven to be severe.  LC-MS/MS methods were developed to measure vemurafenib and its metabolites in human plasma for prediction of treatment outcome and side effects in order to individualize treatment with Zelboraf®.  A novel, rapid quantification method was developed for vemurafenib using a stable isotope labeled internal standard. The method was validated according to international guidelines with regard to calibration range, accuracy, precision, carry-over, dilution integrity, selectivity, matrix effects, recovery and stability. All parameters met the set acceptance criteria.  The first method suitable for quantifying vemurafenib metabolites in human plasma is presented. Lacking commercially available reference substances, human liver microsomes were used to produce the metabolites. In patient samples at steady-state five previously in vitro identified metabolites were quantified for the first time.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) continue to pose a health concern because of their predominance in the diet and air as well as in environmental samples and humans. PCB congeners with 3 or 4 chlorine substituents in ortho position have been associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. Hydroxylated metabolites (OH-PCBs) of these PCBs are also potentially toxic to the developing brain. Metabolism studies have mainly focused on animal models. However, preliminary data from this dissertation work have revealed PCB metabolism differences between laboratory animal models and humans in terms of metabolite profiles, chiral signatures. More concerning, biotransformation of chiral PCBs is poorly investigated in humans. The objective of this dissertation research was to study the biotransformation of chiral and prochiral PCBs to chiral hydroxylated metabolites in humans and rats and to identify individual human P450 enzymes involved in the metabolism of these PCBs. I chose chiral PCB congeners 2,2',3,4',6-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 91); 2,2',3,5',6-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 95), 2,2',3,3',4,6'-hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 132) and 2,2',3,3',6,6'-hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB 136) for this investigation because they are environmentally relevant and their metabolism has been studied in rodents and other laboratory animal species (Kania-Korwel et al., 2016a). Prochiral PCB congeners 2,2′,4,6′-tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB 51) and 2,2′,4,5,6′-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 102) were selected because their considerable presence in technical PCB mixtures. To test the hypothesis that P450 enzyme and species differences mediate the congener-specific enantioselective metabolism of chiral PCBs to hydroxylated metabolites, I sought to establish structure-metabolism relationships by studying the enantioselective metabolism of structurally diverse chiral PCBs by human liver microsomes (HLMs). Racemic PCB 91, PCB 95 and PCB 132 were incubated in vitro with pooled or individual donor HLMs at 37 °C, and levels and chiral signatures of the parent PCB and its hydroxylated metabolites were determined by high-resolution gas chromatography equipped with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC/TOF-MS) or electron capture detection (GC-ECD). Hydroxylated metabolites formed were identified and metabolic schemes for these PCBs proposed. I found inter-individual differences in the formation of OH-PCBs by individual donor HLMs. Comparison of the metabolite profiles of PCB 91, PCB 95, PCB 132 and PCB 136 (PCB 136 metabolism by HLMs was investigated by other researchers) revealed congener-specific differences in the oxidation of PCBs by human cytochrome P450 enzymes. PCB 91 and PCB 132 were mainly hydroxylated in meta position, with the 1,2-shift metabolites being the major metabolites formed from both PCB congeners by HLMs. In contrast, PCB 95 and PCB 136 were primarily hydroxylated in the para position. Moreover, we determined human P450 isoforms involved in the metabolism of neurotoxic PCBs using in silico and in vitro approaches. In silico predictions suggested that chiral PCBs are metabolized by CYP1A2, CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2E1, and CYP3A4. Experimentally we found that CYP2A6, CYP2B6 and to a minor extent CYP2E1 were the enzymes involved in the metabolism of these chiral PCBS. We also investigated nonchiral sources of chiral OH-PCBs by studying the P450- and species-dependent biotransformation of prochiral PCB 51 and PCB 102 to chiral OH-PCB metabolites. Prochiral PCB 51 and PCB 102 were incubated with liver microsomes prepared from male Sprague-Dawley rats pretreated with various inducers of P450 enzymes including phenobarbital (PB), dexamethasone (DEX), isoniazid (INH), β-naphthoflavone (BNF), clofibric acid (CFA) or corn oil (CO); and untreated male cynomolgus monkeys, Hartley albino guinea pigs, New Zealand rabbits, golden Syrian hamsters; and untreated female Beagle dogs. PCB 51 and PCB 102 were metabolized to 2,2',4,6'-tetrachlorobiphenyl-3'-ol (OH-PCB 51) and 2,2',4,5,6'-pentachlorobiphenyl-3'-ol (OH-PCB 102), respectively. The formation of both metabolites was P450 isoforms- and species-dependent. Moreover, OH-PCB 51 and OH-PCB 102 were chiral and were formed enantioselectively in all microsomes investigated. Taken together, my findings demonstrate (1) considerable inter-individual variability in the congener-specific metabolism of PCBs to OH-PCBs; (2) the enantioselective formation of OH-PCBs by human CYP2A6, CYP2B6, and CYP2E1; and (3) that chiral PCB metabolites are formed enantioselectively from prochiral PCB congeners. Interestingly, the metabolism of PCBs by CYP2A6 appears to involve arene oxide intermediates, as suggested by the formation of 1,2-shift products as major metabolites of PCB 91 and PCB 132. In contrast, 1,2-shift products are minor PCB metabolites formed in rodents. Therefore extrapolation of hepatic metabolism across species may not be consistent and these differences should be considered in future toxicity and risk assessment studies.

FORTES, S.S. Estudo de metabolismo in vitro e inibição enzimática do produto natural Licarina A empregando microssomas hepático de humanos. 2017. Tese (Doutorado) - Faculdade de Filosofia Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 2017. Muitos fármacos comercializados tiveram sua origem em produtos naturais e seus derivados. Devido ao grande potencial farmacológico destas novas moléculas pesquisadas, uma etapa importante e inicial no desenvolvimento de um novo fármaco é a avaliação do seu comportamento frente as enzimas do citocromo P450 (CYP 450), incluindo os estudos de interações medicamentosas. Neste contexto, um substrato que merece destaque é a Licarina A (Lic A). Este composto é uma neolignana encontrada em algumas espécies de plantas e vêm demonstrando várias propriedades biológicas promissoras, dentre elas destaca-se a atividade anti-leishimania. No entanto, para que esta substância com comprovada atividade se torne um fármaco é necessário realizar, na fase pré-clínica, estudos sobre seu perfil metabólico frente às enzimas do CYP450 e estudos de interação medicamentosa. Portanto, esta Tese teve como objetivo determinar os parâmetros enzimáticos utilizando microssomas hepáticos de humanos através do estudo de metabolismo in vitro com esta molécula e realizar estudos de interação medicamentosa através dos estudos de inibição enzimática e pesquisar a isoforma do CYP450 que metaboliza predominantemente este produto natural através do emprego de enzimas recombinantes de humanos. Primeiramente, foi desenvolvido um método analítico para a determinação do produto natural Licarina A em meio microssomal. As análises foram realizadas por cromatografia liquida de alta eficiência empregando a coluna Ascentis C18 e fase móvel composta por metanol: solução aquosa de ácido fórmico 0,1% (75:25, v/v); a vazão empregada foi de 1,0 mL min-1. O método foi validado na faixa de concentração de 0,383 a 76,65 ?mol L-1, com coeficiente de correlação linear de 0,99 e limite de quantificação de 0,383 ?mol L-1. A precisão e exatidão apresentaram resultados dentro do recomendável pela ANVISA. Após validação do método, estabeleceram-se as condições lineares para a depleção da Lic A no meio microssomal e posteriormente, a cinética foi determinada em condições de velocidade inicial utilizando para tanto 0,20 mg mL-1 de concentração de proteínas microssomais e 20 minutos de tempo de incubação. O comportamento observado na cinética enzimática para a depleção da Lic A foi um comportamento atípico, caracterizada pelo modelo cinético de Hill. Os valores de Vmax, S50 e coeficiente de Hill foram, 1,651 ?mol mg-1 min-1, 3,87 ?mol L-1 e 2,0 respectivamente. A partir dos parâmetros cinéticos o valor de clearance intrínseco (CLint) para a Lic A foi de 0,22 mL min-1 mg-1. Posteriormente, a correlação in vitro in vivo foi realizada e foi observado um clareance hepático (CLhep) de 20 mL min-1 kg-1 e taxa de extração hepática (E) de 1. As isoformas do CYP450 envolvidas no metabolismo da Lic A foram CYP 1A2 e 2B6. Os estudos de inibição mostraram que a Lic A é um inibidor fraco frente as isoformas do CYP450 estudadas, com valores de IC50 maiores do que 80 ?mol L-1. Embora já tenha sido estudada diferentes vias metabólicas da licarina A com vários metabólitos identificados, esta foi a primeira vez que foi observado a formação de um metabólito in vitro com o uso de microssomas hepático humano. Com o auxílio da espectrometria de massa foi possível a identificação do metabólito de m/z 343 [M+H]+, possivelmente um composto epoxidado, da licarina A. / FORTES, S.S. In vitro metabolism and enzymatic inhibition study of the natural product Licarin A employing human liver microsomes. 2017. Thesis (Doctoral) - Faculdade de Filosofia Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 2017. Many marketed drugs had their origin in natural products and their derivatives. Due to the biological potential of these new molecules, an important initial step in the development of a new drug is the evaluation of its behavior in front of cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP 450), including studies of drug interactions. In this context, a substrate that deserves attention is Licarin A (Lic A). This compound is a neolignan found in some species of plants and several promising biological properties have been describing for this natural product, among them anti-leishimania activity. However, for this substance to become a drug, it is necessary to perform, in the preclinical phase, studies regarding its metabolic profile and drug interactions. Therefore, this thesis aimed to determine the enzymatic parameters by using human liver microsomes through in vitro metabolism study with this molecule and to conduct drug interaction studies through the enzyme inhibition studies and finally, to investigate the CYP450 isoforms that metabolize predominantly this natural product through the use of recombinant human enzymes. Firstly, an analytical method was developed for the quantification of the natural product Licarin A in microsomal medium. The analyzes were performed by high performance liquid chromatography employing an Ascentis C18 column and mobile phase composed of methanol: 0.1% formic acid aqueous solution (75:25, v / v); the flow rate used was 1.0 mL min-1. The method was validated in the concentration range of 0.333 to 76.65 ?mol L-1, with a linear correlation coefficient of 0.99 and a quantification limit of 0.333 ?mol L-1. Accuracy and precision showed results in agreement with ANVISA guidelines. After method validation, the linear conditions for depletion of Lic A in the microsomal medium were established. Subsequently, the kinetics were determined under initial velocity conditions using 0.20 mg mL-1 of microsomal protein concentration and 20 minutes of incubation time. The behavior observed in the enzymatic kinetics for the depletion of Lic A was an atypical behavior, characterized by the Hill kinetic model. The values of Vmax, S50 and Hill coefficient were 1.651 ?mol mg-1 min-1, 3.87 ?mol L-1 and 2.0, respectively. From the kinetic parameters, the intrinsic clearance (CLint) for Lic A was 0.22 mL min-1 mg-1. Subsequently, in vitro in vivo correlation was performed and a hepatic clareance (CLhep) of 20 mL min-1 kg-1 and a hepatic extraction rate (E) of 1 was observed. The CYP450 isoforms involved in the metabolism of Lic A were CYP 1A2 and 2B6. Inhibition studies have shown that Lic A is a weak CYP450 inhibitor, with IC50 values greater than 80 ?mol L-1. Although different metabolic pathways of licanin A have been studied and several metabolites were identified, this is the first report about the formation of an in vitro metabolite after metabolism by human liver microsomes. With the aid of mass spectrometry it was possible to identify the metabolite of m/z 343 [M+H]+, possibly an epoxidized compound, of licanin A.

O miclobutanil é fungicida quiral da família dos triazóis, comercializado como mistura racêmica. Apesar dos enantiômeros apresentarem as mesmas propriedades físico-químicas, estes podem diferir em termos de atividade, metabolismo, excreção e toxicidade. No presente trabalho, foram realizados estudos in vitro enantiosseletivos de metabolismo empregando microssomas hepáticos de humanos cujos objetivos foram determinar os parâmetros cinéticos das enzimas do citocromo P450 (CYP450) após metabolismo do miclobutanil (na forma de racemato e enantiômeros isolados), determinar quais isoformas do CYP450 são responsáveis pelo metabolismo do praguicida e também a capacidade deste praguicida em inibir as principais enzimas do CYP450. Os estudos foram realizados empregando a mistura racêmica e também os enantiômeros isolados. Para tanto, foi desenvolvido e validado um método para análise enantiosseletiva do miclobutanil em meio microssomal empregando a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência acoplada a espectrometria de massas. A separação dos enantiômeros foi realizada na coluna Chiralpak AD® empregando metanol (100%) como fase móvel. Após a validação do método, os parâmetros cinéticos foram determinados, com valores de Vmáx, Km e CLint de 66,06 + 4,59 nmol min-1 mg-1, 3,61 + 0,88 ?mol L-1 e 18,30 mL min-1 mg-1 respectivamente, quando o substrato foi o racemato e de 305,50 + 18,39 nmol min-1 mg-1, 6,85 + 1,29 ?mol L-1 e 44,60 mL min-1 mg-1 respectivamente, quando o (+)-miclobutanil foi empregado como substrato. O (?)-miclobutanil não foi metabolizado pelas enzimas presentes nos microssomas hepáticos de humanos. As isoformas responsáveis pelo metabolismo do miclobutanil foram a CYP2C19 e a CYP3A4. Os estudos in vitro de inibição mostraram que o miclobutanil é um inibidor moderado das enzimas CYP2D6 e CYP2C9 um inibidor forte das enzimas CYP3A4/5 e CYP2C19. / Myclobutanil is a chiral triazole fungicide, sold as a racemic mixture. Although the enantiomers have the same physico-chemical properties, they may exhibit different bioactivity, metabolism, excretion and toxicity. In the present work, in vitro enantioselective metabolism studies were carried out by using human liver microsomes, aiming to determine the kinetic parameters of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes after myclobutanil metabolism and the main CYP450 isoforms involved in the metabolism. In addition, the myclobutanil inhibition capacity over the main CYP450 enzymes was evaluated. The studies were carried out with rac-myclobutanil as well as with the isolated enantiomers. To accomplish that, an enantioselective method for myclobutanil analysis was developed and validated by using high performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The separation of enantiomers was realized on a Chiralpak AD® column and methanol (100%) was used as mobile phase. The enzymatic kinetics, Vmáx, Km and CLint, were: 66.06 + 4.59 nmol min-1 mg-1, 3.61 + 0.88 ?mol L-1 and 18.30 mL min-1 mg-1, respectively, for rac-myclobutanil and 305.50 + 18.39 nmol min-1 mg-1, 6.85 + 1.29 ?mol L-1 and 44.60 mL min-1 mg-1, respectively, for the (+)-myclobutanil. The (?)-myclobutanil was not metabolized by CYP450 enzymes. The isoforms involved in myclobutanil metabolism were CYP2C19 and CYP3A4. In vitro inhibition studies showed that myclobutanil is a medium inhibitor of CYP2D6 and CYP2C9 enzymes and a strong inhibitor of CYP3A4/A5 and CYP2C19 enzymes.

A piplartina (PPT) ou piperlongumine é um produto natural da classe dos alcaloides encontrada em espécies da família Pipereaceae. Devido a sua alta potência e seletividade na inibição de diversas linhagens de células tumorais, a PPT têm sido investigada como um potencial candidato à fármaco. Neste contexto, estudos relacionados à sua toxicidade e segurança devem ser realizados, incluindo a determinação do papel das enzimas do Citocromo P450 (CYP450) sobre o metabolismo da PPT. Esta família de enzimas é responsável pela biotransformação de cerca de 75% dos fármacos presentes no mercado. Os estudos pré-clínicos que visam avaliar o metabolismo podem ser realizados empregando modelos in vitro como uma ferramenta para predição de características farmacocinéticas in vivo. Assim, o presente estudo teve como objetivo a avaliação do perfil metabólico da PPT frente as enzimas do CYP450 empregando-se estudos in vitro com microssomas hepáticos humanos (HLM) e a posterior predição de parâmetros farmacocinéticos. Estes estudos incluíram a determinação de parâmetros enzimáticos, estudos de inibição da PPT sobre as principais isoformas do CYP450, elucidação estrutural de metabólitos gerados com a reação de metabolismo e, finalmente, estudos de fenotipagem enzimática. A metodologia geral de estudo de metabolismo in vitro envolveu o uso de técnicas cromatográficas acopladas a diversos detectores/analisadores, tais como arranjo de diodos, espectrometria de massa e ressonância magnética nuclear. O metabolismo foi avaliado pela medida da taxa de desaparecimento da PPT do meio microssomal. Após validação da metodologia para quantificação da PPT e determinação das condições de velocidade inicial de reação, um perfil sigmoidal foi obtido, indicando o metabolismo da PPT por enzimas contendo múltiplos sítios ativos e/ou catálise por diversas enzimas concomitantemente. Os parâmetros cinéticos calculados foram Vmax = 5,5 ± 0,5 nmol mg proteína-1 min-1, S50 = 127,70 ?mol L-1 e Coeficiente de Hill (h) = 3. O clearance intrínseco obtido foi de 22,68 ?L min -1 mg -1. A fração não ligada às proteínas plasmáticas e microssomais foi de 0,07 e 0,76, respectivamente. O clearance in vivo predito foi de 19,79 mL min -1 kg -1, o clearance hepático de 1,89 mL min -1 kg -1 e extração hepática de 0,09. Dentre quatro isoformas avaliadas, CYP3A, CYP2C9, CYP2D6 e CYP1A2, a PPT demonstrou um potencial em causar interação produto natural-medicamento apenas sobre a CYP1A2. A PPT é um inibidor competitivo dose-dependente da CYP1A2, apresentando um valor de Ki de 1,5 ?mol L-1. A razão [I]/Ki obtida de 9,1 prediz uma interação relevante in vivo. Além disso, a PPT apresentou uma inibição tempo-dependente sobre a CYP1A2 com valores de KI de 8 ?mol L-1 e kinact de 0,014 min-1. A inibição dose-, ii NADPH- e tempo-dependente confirmam uma inibição baseada no mecanismo em que o modo pelo qual a PPT liga-se à enzima é irreversível. Baseado nos dados obtidos pelas análises por espectrometria de massa e ressonância magnética nuclear, quatro metabólitos gerados após metabolismo da PPT com HLM tiveram suas estruturas propostas. Assim, foram caracterizados os metabólitos M1 (produto de uma desmetilação na posição meta do anel 3,4,5-trimetoxicinâmico), M2 (produzido por uma epoxidação entre o C3 e C4 do anel lactâmico), M3 (gerado através de uma oxidação no C5 do anel lactâmico) e, finalmente, M4 (produto de uma reação transdiidrodiol entre C3 e C4). O metabólito M4 é formado tardiamente (após 40 min de reação) e provavelmente é um metabólito secundário produzido a partir de M2 através de uma reação trans-diidrodiol. O estudo de fenotipagem demonstrou que as principais isoformas que contribuem para o metabolismo da PPT são a CYP1A2 (formação de M1) e a CYP3A4 (formação de M2 e M3). O emprego das isoformas recombinantes demonstrou a formação de M4 a partir da catálise por diversas isoformas, CYP2C19, CYP2C8, CYP2D6, CYP2B6 e CYP2E1. Portanto, o perfil metabólico do candidato a agente antitumoral PPT frente às enzimas do CYP450 foi demonstrado neste trabalho, proporcionando aspectos relacionados à segurança e eficácia desta substância. Os dados apresentados certamente servirão como guia em estudos clínicos futuros / Piplartine (PPT) or Piperlongumine is a naturally occurring alkaloid found in species of Pipereaceae family. Due its high potency and selectivity of inhibition of several cancer cell lines, PPT has been investigated as a potential drug candidate. In this context, studies related with toxicity and safety should be performed, including the role of the Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes in PPT metabolism. This family of enzymes is responsible for the biotransformation of 75% of the drugs in the market. The preclinical studies that aim to evaluate the drug metabolism can be performed by employing in vitro models as a tool for prediction of in vivo pharmacokinetic characteristics. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate the metabolic profile of PPT after metabolism by CYP450 enzymes employing in vitro studies with human liver microsomes (HLM) and the ensuing prediction of pharmacokinetic parameters. These studies embraced the kinetic parameters determination, inhibition ability of PPT over the most important CYP450 isoforms, structural elucidation of the produced metabolites after metabolism reaction and, finally, the enzymatic phenotyping study. The general procedure for in vitro metabolism studies consisted of the use of chromatographic techniques coupled to different detectors/analyzers, such as diode array, mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. The metabolism was evaluated measuring the rate of disappearance of the PPT from de microsomal medium. After method validation for PPT quantification and determination of initial velocity conditions, the enzymatic kinetics with a sigmoidal profile indicating a metabolism of PPT by enzymes with multiple active sites and/or metabolism by multiple CYP450 enzymes was observed. The following parameters were calculated: Vmax = 5.5 ± 0.5 nmol/mg protein/min, S50 = 127.7 ?mol/L, and Hill coefficient of 3.0. The intrinsic clearance was 22.68 ?L min -1 mg -1. The unbound fraction of PPT on plasmatic and microsomal proteins was 0.07 and 0.76, respectively. The predicted in vivo clearance was 19.79 mL min -1 kg -1, the hepatic clearance was 1.89 mL min -1 kg -1 and the hepatic extraction was 0.09. Among 4 isoforms evaluated, CYP3A, CYP2C9, CYP2D6 and CYP1A2, a potential natural product-drug interaction for only CYP1A2 isoenzyme by PPT was observed. PPT showed to be a competitive and dosedependent inhibitor of CYP1A2, showing a Ki value of 1.5 ?mol L-1. The ratio [I]/Ki of 9.1 predicts an important in vivo interaction. Furthermore, a time-dependent inhibition of CYP1A2 with a KI of 8 ?mol L-1 and a kinact of 0.014 min-1 by PPT was demonstrated. The dose-, time- and NADPH-dependent inhibition confirms an inhibition based on mechanism through an irreversible bond. Based on results obtained from the mass spectrometry analysis and from the nuclear magnetic resonance analysis, four metabolites were identified and characterized. The metabolites characterized were: M1 (product of a demethylation in the 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl portion, M2 (derived from an epoxidation between C3 and C4 on the lactone ring), M3 (product of a simple oxidation on C5 of lactone ring), and finally M4 (derived from a dihydrodiol reaction between C3 and C4). The metabolite M4 is produced later (after 40 min of reaction) and probably is a secondary metabolite produced from M2 through a dihydrodiol reaction. The phenotyping study demonstrated that the main isoforms involved in PPT metabolism are CYP1A2 (production of M1) and CYP3A4 (production of M2 and M3). The recombinant isoforms study demonstrated that several isoforms (CYP2C19, CYP2C8, CYP2D6, CYP2B6 and CYP2E1) catalyze the production of M4. In summary, a wide view about the metabolism of the promising drug candidate PPT by CYP450 enzymes was accomplished. These results, certainly, will be a useful guide for further clinical studies of PPT

A (-)- grandisina (GRA) é um produto natural da classe das lignanas e é encontrada em muitas espécies de plantas das regiões Norte e Nordeste do Brasil. Por apresentar diversas propriedades biológicas, como atividade tripanocida, anti-inflamatória, antinociceptiva, e principalmente atividade antileucêmica e antitumoral contra tumores de Ehrlich, a GRA pode ser considerada um potencial candidato a fármaco. Porém, para que a GRA se torne um fármaco são necessárias diversas etapas de estudos, incluindo estudos pré-clínicos de interações medicamentosas (DDI). As DDI ocorrem principalmente devido a inibições diretas e tempo-dependentes das enzimas do citocromo P450 (CYP450), uma superfamília de enzimas responsável por metabolizar cerca de 75% dos fármacos em uso. Os estudos pré-clínicos de DDI envolvem o conhecimento do potencial inibitório do candidato a fármaco sobre essas enzimas e esses estudos podem ser realizados empregando diversos modelos in vitro, como, por exemplo, microssomas hepáticos de humanos (HLM). Assim, nesse estudo foi avaliado o efeito inibitório da GRA sobre a atividade das principais isoformas do CYP450 e também foram determinadas as isoformas que contribuem para a formação dos metabólitos da GRA. Os resultados demonstraram que múltiplas isoformas participam da formação dos metabólitos da GRA, com destaque para a CYP2C9, que participa da formação de todos os metabólitos. Em relação aos estudos de inibição, foi possível concluir que a GRA é um inibidor fraco da CYP1A2 e CYP2D6, com valores de IC50 maiores do que 200 µM e 100 µM, respectivamente, e um inibidor moderado e competitivo da CYP2C9, com IC50 igual a 40,85 µM e Ki igual a 50,60 µM. Para a CYP3A4 o potencial inibitório da GRA foi avaliado utilizando dois substratos distintos. A GRA demonstrou ser tanto um inibidor dose-dependente moderado e competitivo dessa isoforma, quanto um inibidor tempo-dependente baseado em mecanismo com potencial de inativação equiparável ao do irinotecano, inibidor baseado em mecanismo clinicamente significativo. Utilizando a nifedipina como substrato os valores de IC50 e Ki foram 78,09 µM e 48,71 µM, respectivamente. Já os valores dos parâmetros cinéticos de inativação foram KI= 6,40 µM, kinact= 0,037 min-1 e Clinact= 5,78 mL min-1 µmol-1. Para os ensaios empregando o midazolam os valores de IC50 e Ki foram 48,87 µM e 31,25 µM, respectivamente, e os valores dos parâmetros cinéticos de inativação foram KI= 31,53 µM, kinact= 0,049 min-1 e Clinact= 1,55 mL min-1 µmol-1. Com relação a CYP2E1, por sua vez, foi possível observar que a GRA tem capacidade de aumentar a atividade dessa isoforma significativamente a partir da concentração de 4 µM. Portanto, conclui-se que não há risco da GRA apresentar interações medicamentosas com fármacos metabolizados pela CYP1A2 e CYP2D6, enquanto que para a CYP2C9, apesar da GRA ser um inibidor moderado dessa isoforma, o risco é baixo. Já para medicamentos metabolizados pela CYP2E1 e CYP3A4 o risco de DDI existe e isso deve ser cuidadosamente monitorado in vivo, principalmente porque a CYP3A4 é a isoforma responsável por catalisar o metabolismo da maioria dos fármacos. / (-)-grandisin (GRA) is a lignanic natural product found in many species of plants from North and Northeast of Brazil. This compound has several biological properties, such as trypanocide, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antileukemia activity and antitumor activity against Ehrlich tumor. Because of these biological properties, GRA is considered a potential drug candidate, however, before becoming a new drug, GRA has to undergo various tests, including preclinical drug-drug interactions (DDI) studies. Most of the times, DDI occur because of direct and time-dependent inhibitions of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes, an enzyme superfamily responsible for metabolizing the vast majority of drugs administered. Preclinical drug-drug interactions studies involve the evaluation of the potential of a drug candidate to inhibit this superfamily of enzymes and these studies can be conducted using in vitro models, such as human liver microsomes (HLM). Therefore, in this project, the inhibitory effect of GRA on the activity of some CYP450 isoforms was evaluated and the isoforms that catalyze the formation of GRA\'s metabolites were also determined. Results showed that multiple CYP450 isoforms participate in the GRA\'s metabolites formation, highlighting CYP2C9, which catalyzes the formation of all metabolites. The inhibition studies showed that GRA is a weak inhibitor of CYP1A2 and CYP2D6, with IC50 values greater than 200 µM and 100 µM, respectively, and a moderate and competitive inhibitor of CYP2C9, with IC50 value equal to 40.85 µM and Ki value equal to 50.60 µM. The capability of GRA to inhibit CYP3A4 was evaluated using two different substrates. GRA showed to be a moderate and competitive dose- dependent inhibitor of this isoform and also a mechanism-based time-dependent inhibitor with potential of inactivation comparable to irinotecan, a clinically significant mechanism-based inhibitor. IC50 and Ki values obtained using nifedipine as substrate were 78.09 µM and 48.71 µM, respectively, and inactivation kinetics parameters were KI= 6.40 µM, kinact= 0,037 min-1 e Clinact= 5.78 mL min-1 µmol-1. On the other hand, IC50 and Ki values using midazolam as substrate were 48.87 µM and 31.25 µM, respectively, and the values of inactivation kinetics parameters were KI= 31.53 µM, kinact= 0,049 min-1 and Clinact= 1.55 mL min-1 µmol-1. With respect to CYP2E1, it was observed that GRA increases its activity significantly from a concentration of 4 µM. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that there is no risk of DDI between GRA and drugs metabolized by CYP1A2 and CYP2D6, while for CYP2C9, although GRA is a moderate inhibitor of this isoform, the risk is low. Finally, for drugs metabolized by CYP3A4 and CYP2E1 there is risk of DDI and this should be carefully monitored in humans, mainly because CYP3A4 is an isoform responsible for catalyzing the metabolism of most drugs in use.

A (-)- grandisina (GRA) é um produto natural da classe das lignanas e é encontrada em muitas espécies de plantas das regiões Norte e Nordeste do Brasil. Por apresentar diversas propriedades biológicas, como atividade tripanocida, anti-inflamatória, antinociceptiva, e principalmente atividade antileucêmica e antitumoral contra tumores de Ehrlich, a GRA pode ser considerada um potencial candidato a fármaco. Porém, para que a GRA se torne um fármaco são necessárias diversas etapas de estudos, incluindo estudos pré-clínicos de interações medicamentosas (DDI). As DDI ocorrem principalmente devido a inibições diretas e tempo-dependentes das enzimas do citocromo P450 (CYP450), uma superfamília de enzimas responsável por metabolizar cerca de 75% dos fármacos em uso. Os estudos pré-clínicos de DDI envolvem o conhecimento do potencial inibitório do candidato a fármaco sobre essas enzimas e esses estudos podem ser realizados empregando diversos modelos in vitro, como, por exemplo, microssomas hepáticos de humanos (HLM). Assim, nesse estudo foi avaliado o efeito inibitório da GRA sobre a atividade das principais isoformas do CYP450 e também foram determinadas as isoformas que contribuem para a formação dos metabólitos da GRA. Os resultados demonstraram que múltiplas isoformas participam da formação dos metabólitos da GRA, com destaque para a CYP2C9, que participa da formação de todos os metabólitos. Em relação aos estudos de inibição, foi possível concluir que a GRA é um inibidor fraco da CYP1A2 e CYP2D6, com valores de IC50 maiores do que 200 µM e 100 µM, respectivamente, e um inibidor moderado e competitivo da CYP2C9, com IC50 igual a 40,85 µM e Ki igual a 50,60 µM. Para a CYP3A4 o potencial inibitório da GRA foi avaliado utilizando dois substratos distintos. A GRA demonstrou ser tanto um inibidor dose-dependente moderado e competitivo dessa isoforma, quanto um inibidor tempo-dependente baseado em mecanismo com potencial de inativação equiparável ao do irinotecano, inibidor baseado em mecanismo clinicamente significativo. Utilizando a nifedipina como substrato os valores de IC50 e Ki foram 78,09 µM e 48,71 µM, respectivamente. Já os valores dos parâmetros cinéticos de inativação foram KI= 6,40 µM, kinact= 0,037 min-1 e Clinact= 5,78 mL min-1 µmol-1. Para os ensaios empregando o midazolam os valores de IC50 e Ki foram 48,87 µM e 31,25 µM, respectivamente, e os valores dos parâmetros cinéticos de inativação foram KI= 31,53 µM, kinact= 0,049 min-1 e Clinact= 1,55 mL min-1 µmol-1. Com relação a CYP2E1, por sua vez, foi possível observar que a GRA tem capacidade de aumentar a atividade dessa isoforma significativamente a partir da concentração de 4 µM. Portanto, conclui-se que não há risco da GRA apresentar interações medicamentosas com fármacos metabolizados pela CYP1A2 e CYP2D6, enquanto que para a CYP2C9, apesar da GRA ser um inibidor moderado dessa isoforma, o risco é baixo. Já para medicamentos metabolizados pela CYP2E1 e CYP3A4 o risco de DDI existe e isso deve ser cuidadosamente monitorado in vivo, principalmente porque a CYP3A4 é a isoforma responsável por catalisar o metabolismo da maioria dos fármacos. / (-)-grandisin (GRA) is a lignanic natural product found in many species of plants from North and Northeast of Brazil. This compound has several biological properties, such as trypanocide, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antileukemia activity and antitumor activity against Ehrlich tumor. Because of these biological properties, GRA is considered a potential drug candidate, however, before becoming a new drug, GRA has to undergo various tests, including preclinical drug-drug interactions (DDI) studies. Most of the times, DDI occur because of direct and time-dependent inhibitions of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes, an enzyme superfamily responsible for metabolizing the vast majority of drugs administered. Preclinical drug-drug interactions studies involve the evaluation of the potential of a drug candidate to inhibit this superfamily of enzymes and these studies can be conducted using in vitro models, such as human liver microsomes (HLM). Therefore, in this project, the inhibitory effect of GRA on the activity of some CYP450 isoforms was evaluated and the isoforms that catalyze the formation of GRA\'s metabolites were also determined. Results showed that multiple CYP450 isoforms participate in the GRA\'s metabolites formation, highlighting CYP2C9, which catalyzes the formation of all metabolites. The inhibition studies showed that GRA is a weak inhibitor of CYP1A2 and CYP2D6, with IC50 values greater than 200 µM and 100 µM, respectively, and a moderate and competitive inhibitor of CYP2C9, with IC50 value equal to 40.85 µM and Ki value equal to 50.60 µM. The capability of GRA to inhibit CYP3A4 was evaluated using two different substrates. GRA showed to be a moderate and competitive dose- dependent inhibitor of this isoform and also a mechanism-based time-dependent inhibitor with potential of inactivation comparable to irinotecan, a clinically significant mechanism-based inhibitor. IC50 and Ki values obtained using nifedipine as substrate were 78.09 µM and 48.71 µM, respectively, and inactivation kinetics parameters were KI= 6.40 µM, kinact= 0,037 min-1 e Clinact= 5.78 mL min-1 µmol-1. On the other hand, IC50 and Ki values using midazolam as substrate were 48.87 µM and 31.25 µM, respectively, and the values of inactivation kinetics parameters were KI= 31.53 µM, kinact= 0,049 min-1 and Clinact= 1.55 mL min-1 µmol-1. With respect to CYP2E1, it was observed that GRA increases its activity significantly from a concentration of 4 µM. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that there is no risk of DDI between GRA and drugs metabolized by CYP1A2 and CYP2D6, while for CYP2C9, although GRA is a moderate inhibitor of this isoform, the risk is low. Finally, for drugs metabolized by CYP3A4 and CYP2E1 there is risk of DDI and this should be carefully monitored in humans, mainly because CYP3A4 is an isoform responsible for catalyzing the metabolism of most drugs in use.

En raison de la diffusion incontrôlée sur le e-commerce, la sécurité et l’alternative légale aux stupéfiants habituels, les nouvelles substances psychoactives (NPS), d’apparition récente (2008), sont au cœur des phénomènes récents d’addiction et de décès mal expliqués. Au-delà des différents défis dans nos sociétés (prévention, législation), la capacité d’identifier les NPS dans des échantillons biologiques pour caractériser leur utilisation, présente de nombreux challenges analytiques. L’objectif principal de cette thèse a été de collecter des échantillons biologiques (sang, urine, cheveux) provenant de cas d’exposition à des NPS et d’y caractériser les substances présentes à l’aide de méthodes analytiques originales, dans le but d’enrichir les librairies de spectres de masse et d’améliorer, en conséquence, la détection de la consommation de NPS. En particulier, il s’agissait d’augmenter la fenêtre de détection de la prise de NPS en se focalisant sur les métabolites qui sont, le plus souvent, les produits majeurs d’élimination. Le développement analytique, par chromatographie liquide ultra haute performance couplée à la spectrométrie de masse en tandem (UHPLC-MS/MS), a demandé plusieurs mois d’optimisation afin d’obtenir une méthode robuste, exhaustive et sensible. Actuellement, la librairie de spectres MS comporte 114 NPS et est mise à jour régulièrement. A la suite de ce développement, ma thèse a porté sur l’étude de cas d’intoxication vus au service des urgences du CHU de Strasbourg, mais aussi en médecine légale, avec des situations de décès et d’identification de produits inconnus provenant de saisies (poudres et cristaux). Il a également été nécessaire de développer des outils analytiques complémentaires, tels que la caractérisation de métabolite(s) par étude sur microsomes hépatiques humains (HLMs), et l’utilisation de la spectroscopie par résonance magnétique nucléaire (RMN) afin d’identifier avec certitude certains composés et de déterminer leur degré de pureté. Les outils analytiques développés et la stratégie mise en place ont permis la rédaction de 18 publications, ainsi que l’agencement de nombreuses collaborations. / Due to the uncontrolled spread on the Internet and their legal alternative to usual drugs, the new psychoactive substances (NPS), recently appeared (2008), are at the center of recent phenomena of addiction and badly explained deaths. Beyond different challenges in our societies (prevention, legislation), the ability to identify NPS in biological samples, in order to characterize their use, presents many analytical challenges. The main objective of this thesis was to collect biological samples (blood, urine, hair) from cases of exposure to NPS and to characterize the substances present using original analytical methods, in order to enlarge the libraries of mass spectra and improve, as a result, the detection of NPS consumption. In particular, it was intended to increase the detection sensitivity of NPS intake by focusing on the metabolites that are often the major products of elimination. This analytical development, by ultra-high liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), required several months of optimization in order to obtain a robust, exhaustive and sensitive method. At present, the mass spectra database has 114 NPS and is regularly updated. Thereafter, ma thesis focused on the study of cases of intoxication observed in the emergency department of Strasbourg, but also in legal medicine with situations of deaths and identification of unknown products collected from seizures (powders and crystals). It has also been necessary to implement complementary analytical tools, such as the characterization of metabolites by human liver microsomes (HLMs), and the use of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to accurately identify the compounds and establish their purity degrees. The analytical tools developed, and the strategy adopted, allowed the writing of 18 publications, as well as the setting up of numerous collaborations.