This thesis aims to advance the assessment of psychopathy and treatment of offenders with high levels of psychopathic traits within the UK prison service. Following an introduction to set this work in context, Part I provides a review that investigates how assessments of psychopathy inform the risk, need and responsivity needs of individuals. This is a framework that underpins treatment of offending behaviour. Part II explores a potential psychopathy assessment and screening measure for the UK prison service. Specifically, Chapter two assesses the reliability and validity of the Hare Self-Report Psychopathy scale (Hare SRP). Part III investigates the impact of an innovative treatment programme for violent offenders with high levels of psychopathic traits; the Chromis programme. Chapter three outlines the nature of the Chromis programme. Chapter four explores participants’ experiences of treatment using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis. Chapter five focuses on changes in anger and aggression across five participants, looking at self-reported change and observed behaviour. Chapter six reports on changes across four key areas using a multiple-case study methodology of five case studies. Finally there is an overview and discussion of the findings, their implications, and limitations and suggested future research.

The identification and management of individuals with a perceived high risk of future violence is of great priority for mental health professionals and the criminal justice system. The overall aim of this thesis is to examine the validity of the assessment and treatment of violence in forensic populations with a specific focus on the contribution of dynamic risk factors in predicting recidivism. Chapter One presents a conceptual literature review which provides an overview of the development of violence risk assessment approaches, and examines the predictive validity of dynamic factors in predicting violent recidivism. The review demonstrates the ability of dynamic risk factors in predicting future community and institutional violence. Chapter Two provides a critique of the HCR-20 Risk Assessment Scheme and highlights that despite some apparent shortcomings of the HCR-20, the instrument remains the best known and best researched, empirically based guide to violence risk assessment. In Chapter Three a prospective research study examines the predictive validity of the HCR-20 Risk Assessment Scheme in a UK sample of patients under the care of a community forensic mental health service. The study aimed to examine the ability of the HCR-20 total scores and individual sub scale scores to predict future acts of violence. The study demonstrates that the historical factors of the HCR-20 are highly predictive of future re-offending within this population and also highlights the importance of the clinical scale in predicting future violent acts. This work adds to current knowledge and understanding of the risk assessment and management process in UK samples. A case study is presented in chapter Four which evaluates the impact of the ETS programme on the cognitive deficits identified in a violent adult male offender (client A) serving a sentence at HMP Birmingham. By Mariam Azam-Zanganeh.

While the mainstream offender literature has advanced recently, the evidence for effective treatments for offenders with an intellectual disability and personality disorder is limited. This thesis aims to contribute to the evidence base by identifying those psychological factors that are shown to benefit from treatment intervention for this particular group of offenders. In order to do this the thesis is presented in three distinct phases. First, in chapter two, a framework for identifying needs in offenders with PD is critiqued and the strengths and weaknesses of this framework are then used to inform the development of a similar approach to the identification of criminogenic needs for offenders with ID and PD (The Treatment Need Matrix; TNM). Chapter three provides a systematic review that was undertaken to establish the relevant areas of need for these offenders, and establish definitions of the areas identified. Research into the reliability of this framework is described in chapter four, with results suggesting that the TNM compares favorably to similar structured clinical judgment tools. Chapter five concludes the thesis by discussing the overall findings and concludes that the TNM provides a useful and unique framework for the identification of treatment needs in offenders with ID and PD.

Research into volunteers' motivations to volunteer (MTV) usually relies on surveys and there is a need for more qualitative research into volunteering motivations, particularly in the United Kingdom. Furthermore, existing qualitative research into volunteering motivations usually relies on the thematic analysis of interviews with volunteers, but while this analysis is necessarily the analysis of discourse, there is rarely a systematic or replicable analysis of such discourse. This thesis aims to contribute to current understanding of MTV and the beliefs underpinning them by drawing upon various tools for discourse analysis in the analysis of community-based volunteers' accounts of their volunteering experiences. However, given the generally positive reception that community based volunteering receives in the public domain, this thesis aims not only to describe and explain informants' MTV but also to critically evaluate volunteers' representations of volunteering practice. A central argument in this thesis is that while a strong sense of concern for the suffering and flourishing of beneficiaries is expressed throughout volunteers' representations, volunteering tends to be represented as an optional act of goodwill, rather than a moral duty or obligation. This raises questions about the dominant ways we think about helping others in contemporary society and about the ideologies underpinning such beliefs. It is argued that bringing to the fore and problematizing such beliefs is critical in a time where traditional collectives are breaking down and the social contracts underpinning British and European society together with the nature of our obligations as citizens in an increasingly globalized society are subject to increasing scrutiny and debate.

This thesis investigates the debate around sex offender treatment efficacy. Numerous methods are utilised to explore this topic, including a meta-analysis (N =15,931), empirical research (N =322) and a single case study. Chapter 1 reviews the efficacy of sex offender treatment in relation to study design, treatment type, and treatment setting. Results indicate a positive effect of treatment in reducing both sexual and general recidivism for treated versus untreated offenders. However, treatment effects varied greatly according to the study design used, with no significant effect of treatment found for randomised controlled trials. Within Chapter 2, survival analysis and logistic regression are used to examine the impact of treatment dose (‘Risk Principle’) on reconviction and within-treatment change. Results indicate that whilst controlling for Risk Matrix 2000 (Thornton, Mann, Webster, Blud, Travers, Friendship & Erikson, 2003) classification, treatment dose does not influence treatment outcome. The results are discussed in light of the need to consider the way that sexual offenders interact with the amount of treatment received. Chapter 3 uses a single case design to explore assessment and low-dose intervention with an internet offender. The case study explores practice based issues, including the difficulty in applying pre-existing knowledge of contact sexual offenders to internet offenders. Chapter 4 provides a critique of Risk Matrix 2000 (Thornton et al., 2003). Chapter 5 discusses the practical and theoretical implications of this thesis, explores limitations of the thesis, and provides recommendations for future research.

The thesis reviewed research around gang membership in adolescents, particularly difficulties defining gangs and the impact this has on quantifying the gang problem and gang crime. Moreover, risk factors associated with gang membership and violence was discussed. The thesis also attempted to explore individual and family risk factors in a UK sample in order to ascertain the consistency of such findings. The research aimed to compare different levels of gang membership based on criteria to define gangs, types of gang crime and motives for joining a gang. There was generally consistency between the groups in these areas. Moreover, the groups were compared on a number of psychological characteristics including violent cognitions, self-esteem and attachment to peers and parents. There were significant differences between the group acquainted with gangs and those with no affiliation on the Machismo subscale, and Father Alienation, Mother Trust and Communication, and the Personal and Parental Self-esteem subscales. All but the Machismo and Father Alienation subscales demonstrated lower scores for the acquainted group. However, the Machismo subscale scores and the Father Alienation scores were higher in the acquainted group compared to the not affiliated group. The psychometric properties of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) were found to have adequate to excellent properties but also a number of limitations. Finally, the case study provided an example of successful interventions when working with gang-involved individuals. The utility of the findings are discussed in relation to future research and future intervention and prevention strategies.

This thesis aims to explore the vulnerabilities of young people to online grooming and sexual abuse, from the perspectives of young people themselves. The thesis is a collection of peer reviewed papers which are published, in press or in submission. The main finding within this thesis is that young people can become vulnerable to sexual victimisation online through multiple routes. A combination of risk factors across various areas of life can increase vulnerability, either over an extended period of time or temporarily. Such risk factors can include difficulties within the family, unhappiness with aspects of life (including self, school, living environment and friends), risking taking behaviour online, non-productive coping and exhibiting personality characteristics such as impulsivity. Grooming is found to be a cyclical, varied and individualistic process and all young people can be targeted; however young people experiencing the risk factors outlined above are likely to require additional protection. Furthermore, findings indicate that the impact of abuse is likely to be associated with the young person’s prior vulnerability, rather than whether the abuse occurred online or offline. This thesis highlights practical ways in which professionals and other adults can protect young people; such collaboration is imperative in order to safeguard young people from online grooming and sexual abuse.

This thesis reports the evaluation of a training program aimed to promote a whole Organisation shift towards greater involvement of affected family members within addiction treatment and services. A two-phase quasi-experimental design integrating action research is described. The Pilot phase involved two teams within the Organisation receiving a family-focused training and on-going supervision package. During this phase, the evaluation outcome measures were developed and pilot tested. Phase two then involved selecting two further teams at random to receive the training package (‘immediate’ training), whilst the two remaining teams served as a control and received the package following a delay (‘delayed’ training). Staff who had received immediate training reported significant increases in positive attitudes towards family-focused practice, as well as increases in the proportion of family-focused practice in their daily routine work. Significant improvements in attitudes were, however, also evident in the absence of the training package during the delayed comparison group’s waiting period. The study supports the use of an Organisational platform to implement change towards more family-focused addiction treatment. The results indicate that addiction services are capable of implementing family-focused practice, however, success depends on many factors at the level of the individual service provider, organization and outside environment.

This ethnographically-oriented study was initiated when Thai post-graduate scholarship students reported a variety of academic, medical and social problems to staff working at an education office which monitors the welfare of Thai students studying in the UK. This study is particularly timely as there was little existing research into the experiences of Thai students studying outside Thailand. Drawing on Holliday’s (1999) notion of ‘small cultures’, the study highlights challenges faced by a group of Thai students as they study for a one-year Master’s degree in the UK during 2011-2012. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, and classroom observations carried out, with four Thai scholarship Master’s students studying at different UK universities. To expand the breadth of the study, a questionnaire survey of sixty-four Thai scholarship Master’s students studying at universities across the UK was administered. Additional background data were obtained from university teachers by means of semi-structured interviews. A picture emerges of the complex challenges and pressures faced by overseas students on a one-year degree programme as they seek to adapt to norms and expectations in the UK. The study highlights the individuality of international students, and resists generalisations about national groups. The study proposes implications for the support of international students at universities in the UK.

The evolution of risk assessments with sexual/violent offenders is discussed, along with the role of police officers employing Active Risk Management System (ARMS). An updated systematic review evaluating the effectiveness of risk tools for predicting sexual recidivism in adult male offenders revealed moderate predictive accuracy with only three of 25 tools demonstrating a large effect size (AUC > .714). Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the usefulness of ARMS was conducted. The global theme of 'risk reduction' was identified. Results suggested that police officers employing ARMS would like to see changes to the tool, though overall, it improved their confidence in assessing offenders. Quantitative data were collected from a regional police force \((N=434)\),revealing four components, namely, sexual risk, protective factors, hostile attitude and relationship status. Whilst the results have important practice implications for police officers managing offenders in the community, additional longitudinal research will be required with regard to the effectiveness of ARMS. As RM2000 is incorporated within ARMS, a critique is provided. Whilst this tool can be a helpful adjunct to assessment, it is important to combine results with structured professional judgement, protective factors and a thorough case formulation. A tailored approach to assessment and treatment is advocated.