The synthesis of hydrogels still uses frequently starting materials based on petroleum. Since it is a non-renewable resource, the deposits will be exhausted sooner or later, besides the exploitation of fossil oil is environmentally harmful and contributes to climate change. For these reasons, alternative materials for hydrogels, which should be renewable and sustainable, have to be investigated. The focus of this thesis was to synthesize \textit{in situ} gelling hydrogels based on polysaccharides and to characterize their properties. Cellulose and chitosan were chosen as starting materials, because they belong to the most abundant biopolymers on earth and therefore are readily available and also renewable. Additionally, cellulose sulfate (CS) is capable of attracting growth factors and chitosan has antimicrobial properties, all characteristics that are desirable for hydrogels in tissue engineering applications. First of all, the sulfation of the cellulose was performed. Celluloses of two origins, sulfite pulp and cotton linters, were used to investigate the influence of the DP towards the DS_sulf. By applying direct sulfation and acetosulfation as sulfation methods a broader range of DS_sulf from 0.8 to 2.0 has been achieved. Values below 1.0 were obtained by acetosulfation for both celulloses without a remarkable influence of the DP. In direct sulfation, DS_sulf values of 1.1 to 2.0 could be achieved by adjusting the ratio of chlorosulfuric acid and anhydroglucose unit of cellulose between 3.0:1; 4.5:1 and 6.0:1. Starting from a ratio of 4.5:1 the effect of the DP is obvious, the longer chains of the cotton linters reach lower DS_sulf values compared to the sulfite pulp. Due to the longer cellulose chains the accessibility of the sulfating agent is limited, this is in particular noticeable at higher DS_sulf once the outer and easier accessible positions are sulfated. The determination of the sulfur content, to quantify the DS_sulf, in CS became a key challenge in this thesis. At the beginning the sulfur content was determined by elemental analysis, because it is the common method in the literature. It is fast, does not require any pretreatment and only a low amount of sample is needed. However, it was found that the carbon and sulfur content in a sample did not interact logically. Theoretically, the relative carbon content should decrease and the relative sulfur content should rise with increasing DS_sulf, because pure cellulose does not contain sulfur. In practice, the percentage for carbon and sulfur increased both or the decrease of the carbon content was lower than expected for the increase in sulfur, so that the resulting DS_sulf was not the same when calculated with sulfur or carbon content. Hence additional direct methods of measuring the DS_sulf, which do not need a calibration sample, had to be investigated to validate the DS_sulf. ICP-OES and precipitation as BaSO4 were chosen as further methods and showed consistent results, but differed considerably from the findings of the elemental analysis. In contrast to elemental analysis, the other methods involve the digestion of the sample. So it could be possible that by using elemental analysis the reaction is incomplete and therefore the result is non-reproducible, however, it is not very likely. Although elemental analysis is faster and straightforward, it is recommended to use ICP-OES or precipitation as BaSO4 when determining the DS_sulf to receive reliable results. The introduction of aldehyde groups in CS was necessary to provide reactive groups for the later hydrogel formation. In cellulose chemistry the widely known Malaprade reaction, an oxidation using sodium periodate, was performed. This oxidation stops after forming the aldehyde and does not further oxidize through to the carboxylic acid, additionally the reaction is possible in water which is essential for CS, since it is only soluble in water and it was aimed for a homogeneous reaction. A requirement for the oxidation is the presence of vicinal diols. The carbon-carbon bond is cleaved and an aldehyde is formed at each hydroxyl group. The maximum DS_ald of 2, which is possible for pure cellulose, cannot be reached, because the prior introduced sulfate groups reduce the number of vicinal OH groups. Although acetosulfation only took place at C6-position and all vicinal diols were still available, the DS_ald reached not more than 0.35. It is possible that steric hindrance through the sulfate group is the reason for these low values. Overall the DS_ald of the oxidized cellulose sulfate (oCS) ranged from 0.09 to 0.35; with increasing DS_sulf the DS_ald decreased. The oCS are intended to be used in medical applications, accordingly their toxicity had to be investigated. Indeed, oCS are just one component for the hydrogel synthesis, but in case of an incomplete gelation the single components have to be non-toxic as well. In general, all oCS were non-toxic at low concentrations (0.5 mg/ml) yet an increasing concentration or a DS_ald of 0.3 and higher resulted in toxic effects. Aside from that, a coherence between M_w and toxicity was ascertained. The toxicity increased when the M_w of the oCS was 70 kDa or less. The second component which is required for the hydrogel formation is a chitosan. The amino group of the chitosan can react with the aldehyde of the oCS by forming an imine. That way both biopolymers are crosslinked and result in a hydrogel. The used chitosan needs to be soluble under physiological conditions, consequently pure chitosan is not suitable since it is only water-soluble under acidic conditions. Hence, three chitosan derivates -- chitosan acetate, chitosan lactate and carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCh) -- were chosen which fulfill the criterion of solubility. To examine their aptitude for hydrogel formation 10 mg of each chitosan derivative and 10 mg of oCS were solved separately in 0,5 ml phosphat buffered saline. Afterwards, a chitosan derivative and oCS were mixed together while stirring until a reaction took place. In case of chitosan acetate and chitosan lactate a white sediment was the result, whereas the use of CMCh led to a colorless hydrogel, on this account all further studies were performed with CMCh. To establish a basis for a targeted hydrogel synthesis, the storage modulus G' was investigated regarding selected parameters of the hydrogel: DS_ald, M_w, mixing ratio and time for gelation. The cross-linking was conducted with four mixing ratios of oCS:CMCh (1:1; 1:3; 1:5; 1:10) and correlated to the amount of substance of the aldehyde of the oCS and the corresponding amount of required CMCh. Since the CMCh solution has a high viscosity, the range of mixing ratios was limited. The total amount of substance was the same for all gels to ensure the comparability of the different hydrogels and the mixed volumes had always a 1:1 ratio to guarantee a fine blending of the components. Like presumed, G' increased with increasing DS_ald. The DS_ald is the specifying magnitude for the cross-linkage of the hydrogel, because the frequency of the aldehyde group is much lower compared to the frequency of the amine group of CMCh. Aldehyde and amine interact by forming an imine bond, the more of these bonds are formed the stiffer the resulting hydrogel becomes and as a result of that, G' increases as well. Furthermore, the storage modulus rises with rising M_w, the reason for it is that with increasing chain length the possibility of polymer entanglement increases. This physical type of cross-linkage makes for a stiffer gel too and therewith a higher G' is the consequence. With respect to the mixing ratio, maximum values for G' are attained if the ratio is shifted towards the component which defines the number of cross-linkages. During the study of the time for gelation it appeared that the time is not an independent parameter, in fact the time depends on the DS_ald. Samples with the shortest time for gelation showed the highest values for G', additionally they had the highest value for DS_ald. Thus, the time for gelation can not be considered when adjusting G'. Further research on the hydrogels presented in this work needs to focus on investigating the toxicity and long-term behavior of the hydrogel, like stability and degradation, as well as its impact on tissue regeneration. The bioactivity and harmlessness of the hydrogel need to be ensured before it can be utilized in tissue engineering for example as cartilage tissue.

Degradable low-fouling hydrogels are ideal vehicles for drug and cell delivery. For each application, hydrogel degradation rate must be re-optimized for maximum therapeutic benefit. We developed a method to rapidly tune degradation rates of low-fouling poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate) (P(EG)xMA) hydrogels by modifying two interdependent variables: (1) base-catalyzed crosslink degradation kinetics, dependent on crosslinker electronics (electron withdrawing groups (EWGs)); and (2) polymer hydration, dependent on the molecular weight (MW) of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) pendant groups. By controlling EWG strength and PEG pendant group MW, P(EG)xMA hydrogels were tuned to degrade over 6 to 52 d. A six-member P(EG)xMA copolymer library yielded slow and fast degrading low-fouling hydrogels for short- and long-term delivery applications. The degradation mechanism was also applied to RGD-functionalized poly(carboxybetaine methacrylamide) (PCBMAA) hydrogels to achieve slow (52 d) and fast (13 d) degrading low-fouling, bioactive hydrogels. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / The delivery of drugs and cells to disease sites is hindered by transport barriers, which can be overcome through local delivery. Injectable hydrogels can serve as local depots that release drugs or cells to improve therapeutic benefit. Currently, however, hydrogels suffer from uncontrolled degradation in the body, degrading at unpredictable rates dependent on the local environment; hydrogels with predictable and tunable degradation rates are therefore required. Herein, we report a method to produce a library of polymers that in situ crosslink to form hydrogels with a range of degradation rates only influenced by the local environments pH, a known quantity. Moreover, the polymers are low-fouling and therefore have minimal non-specific interactions with biomolecules and cells, which improves biocompatibility.

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Synthese und Charakterisierung bisensitiver Hydrogelsysteme für die Realisierung hoch leistungsfähiger chemischer Transistoren in der Mikrofluidik. Dabei wurden unterschiedliche (semi)interpenetrierende Polymernetzwerke auf Basis von N Isopropylacrylamid und Acrylsäure hergestellt und ihre Quelleigenschaften und mechanischen Stabilität bei unterschiedlichen Stimuli untersucht. Hierfür wurde die TANAKA-Kinetik modifiziert, um sie auf Proben unterschiedlicher Aspektverhältnisse anpassen zu können. Es zeigte sich der wechselseitige Einfluss der Teilnetzwerke auf die Quellgeschwindigkeit und Stabilität der (semi)interpenetrierende Polymernetzwerke. Durch eine Optimierung der Synthese konnten die Volumenänderungen der sensitiven Hydrogele gesteigert werden.

Ce mémoire de maîtrise porte sur le développement de microaiguilles hydrogels pour la capture et la détection précoce de biomarqueurs protéiques spécifiques du liquide interstitiel cutané. Le diagnostic précoce d’une maladie et le suivi préventif des paramètres biologiques peuvent effectivement améliorer les traitements et auront un rôle plus important dans les années à venir. Cependant, des obstacles considérables à cette approche persistent, en particulier la nature hautement invasive et perturbatrice des analyses biologiques. Se rendre dans une clinique et subir un prélèvement invasif de sang (ou de liquide biologique) sont des défis considérables par rapport aux traitements courants, qui consistent souvent en des médicaments qui peuvent être pris sans douleur à la maison. Une solution à ces problèmes peut être trouvée dans l'invention de méthodes peu invasives pour le diagnostic et l'analyse des soins de santé, idéalement celles qui peuvent être utilisées à domicile sans nécessiter de personnel formé. À cet égard, les micro-aiguilles (MNs) démontrent un énorme potentiel car leur petite taille garantit qu’elles sont relativement simples et presque indolores. De plus, leur nature simple et à usage unique permet potentiellement une administration à domicile par le patient. Les micro-aiguilles d'hydrogel présentent des caractéristiques bénéfiques à des fins de diagnostic compte tenu de leurs propriétés de gonflement qui permettent d'absorber les fluides corporels tels que le liquide interstitiel (ISF) et de capturer les biomarqueurs. Ces caractéristiques remarquables ont poussé les scientifiques à utiliser des micro-aiguilles d'hydrogel pour des applications de diagnostic. Afin de fournir un contexte pour le développement de cette technologie, cette thèse commence par un examen des principes et des avancées récentes dans le domaine des applications diagnostiques des MN (Chapitre 1). Par la suite, des sections expérimentales, de résultats et de discussion seront présentes sur la fonctionnalisation de l'hydrogel avec des anticorps pour la détection de biomarqueurs spécifiques (Chapitre 2). Le dernier chapitre aborde la conclusion générale et les perspectives d'avenir de cette approche (Chapitre 3). / This master’s thesis focuses on the development of hydrogel microneedles (HMNs) for capture and early detection of specific protein biomarkers form the skin interstitial fluid. Early disease diagnosis and preventative monitoring of biological parameters can effectively improve medical results and anticipate playing a more important part in the forthcoming years. However, considerable barriers to this approach persist, specifically the highly invasive and disruptive nature of biological analyses. Visiting clinics and undergoing invasive blood (or biological fluid) sampling are considerable challenges in comparison with common treatments, which often consist of drugs that may be taken painlessly at home. A solution to these concerns can be found in the invention of minimally invasive methods for diagnostics and healthcare analyzing, ideally ones that may be utilized at home without the requirement for trained staff. In this regard, microneedles (MNs) demonstrate tremendous potential as their small size ensures that they are relatively straightforward and almost painless. Also, their simple and single-use nature potentially permits at-home administration by the patient. HMNs demonstrate beneficial features for the diagnosis purposes considering the swelling properties of them which give the chance of absorbing body fluids such as ISF and capture of the biomarkers. These remarkable features have driven scientists to employ HMNs for diagnostic applications. To provide background for the development of this technology, this thesis begins with a review of the principles and recent advances in the field of diagnostic applications of MNs (Chapter 1). Subsequently, experimental, result, and discussion sections will be present about the functionalization of hydrogel with a model antibody for specific biomarkers detection (Chapter 2). The last chapter discusses the general conclusion and future prospects of this approach (Chapter 3).

La cornée permet à la lumière de pénétrer dans l’œil : c’est notre fenêtre sur le monde. Les déficiences visuelles dues à des défauts de la cornée proviennent de diverses causes, génétiques ou environnementales. La greffe de cornée permet aux patients qui en souffre de recouvrer la vue. Les Kératoprothèses (KPros) sont des prothèses cornéennes pour les patients qui ne peuvent pas bénéficier d’une greffe de cornée en raison du risque de rejet. Les principales limitations de ces Kératoprothèses résident dans l’absence d’intégration à long terme et leur dépendance au matériel donneur humain. Ici, nous avons fabriqué une Kératoprothèse synthétique et transparente biocompatible et suturable en utilisant des méthodes de fabrication avancée (impression 3D) et moulage. La partie optique (noyau) agit comme une fenêtre, mais aussi comme un squelette pour la jupe d’hydrogel. La formulation développée pour l’hydrogel permet de promouvoir la biointégration de l’implant grâce à sa colonisation par les cellules de l'hôte. Ce modèle permet donc de suturer la Kératoprothèse et promouvoir sa biointégration complète. Cette étude de faisabilité établit une méthodologie de production d’un nouveau modèle de Kératoprothèse avec une partie centrale transparente – produite par impression 3D ou moulage – et une jupe d’hydrogel. Contrairement aux modèles disponibles sur le marché, il s’agit ici d’un modèle de KPro qui n’est pas rigide et ne nécessite pas de matériel biologique. Dans un premier temps, l’optique centrale et le squelette ont été conçus à l’aide de Fusion 360. La production de la partie optique a ensuite été réalisée par moulage de PDMS ou impression 3D de résine biocompatible. Chaque méthode de production présente différents avantages et limitations telles que les matériaux pouvant être utilisés ou les propriétés mécaniques et optiques de ces dernières, notamment postproduction. En les combinant, ce modèle de KPro et ces méthodes de productions peuvent nous aider à éviter les complications associées à l’implantation de Kératoprothèses actuellement présentes sur le marché. / The cornea allows light to enter the eye: it is our window to the world. Visual deficiencies due to corneal defects originate from various causes, both genetic and environmental. Corneal transplants enable patients suffering from visual deficiencies to regain their sight. Keratoprostheses are corneal prostheses for patients who cannot benefit from a corneal transplant due to the risk of rejection. The main limitations of these Keratoprostheses lie in their lack of long-term integration and their dependence on human donor material. Here, we have fabricated a biocompatible and suturable synthetic and transparent Keratoprosthesis using advanced manufacturing (3D printing) and casting methods. The optical part (core) acts as a window, but also as a skeleton for the hydrogel skirt. The formulation developed for the hydrogel promotes biointegration of the implant through its colonization by host cells. This model can therefore be used to suture the keratoprosthesis and promote complete biointegration. This feasibility study establishes a methodology for producing a new Keratoprosthesis model with a transparent central part - produced by 3D printing or molding - and a hydrogel skirt. Unlike the models available on the market, this KPro model is not rigid and does not require biological material. Initially, the central optics and skeleton were designed using Fusion 360. The optical part was then produced by molding PDMS or 3D printing biocompatible resin. Each production method offers different advantages and limitations, such as the materials that can be used, or the mechanical and optical properties of the latter, particularly post-production. By combining them, this KPro model and these production methods can help us avoid the complications associated with the implantation of Keratoprostheses currently on the market.

Gegenstand dieser Arbeit war die Synthese von thermisch schaltbaren Kammcopolymeren auf Basis von N-(Isopropylacrylamid) (NiPAAm) und Polyethylenglykolmakromonomeren (PEGMA). Die intensive Charakterisierung der aus diesen Copolymeren hergestellten Schichten und deren Anwendung als Zellkultursubstrate war ein weiteres Forschungsziel dieser Arbeit. Die mit Hilfe der neuartigen Schichten erhaltenen Zellkultursubstrate wurden anhand verschiedener adhärenter Zelllinien erfolgreich getestet. Alle getesten Zelltypen (Mausfibroblasten, humane Endothelzellen der Nabelschnurvene und humane korneale Endothelzellen) proliferierten auf den angebotenen Zellkultursubstraten bei 37°C und konnten durch senken der Temperatur geerntet werden.

Cette thèse rapporte l’étude des propriétés physicochimiques des nanoparticles polymériques et leur impact sur l’interaction avec les cellules vivantes. Nous nous sommes tout spécialement attachés à étudier l’effet des propriétés adhésives et mécaniques des nanoparticules sur leur capacité de pénétration de la membrane cellulaire. Pour ce faire, nous avons tout d’abord utilisé des nanoparticules d’acide polylactique (PLA) fonctionnalisées en surface avec un ligand des sélectines E et P. Le greffage du ligand sur la particule s’est fait par une nouvelle méthode expérimentale garantissant la présence du ligand à la surface de la particule durant toute sa durée de vie. Cette méthode consiste à mélanger un polymère fonctionnalisé avec le ligand avec un autre polymère non fonctionnalisé. La présence du ligand à la surface des nanoparticules formées à partir de ce mélange de polymères a été confirmée par analyse ToF SIMS. Nous avons pu prouver que les particules possédant le ligand greffé à leur surface démontraient une capacité adhésive supérieure à leurs homologues non fonctionnalisés sur des cellules endothéliales HUVEC activées par différentes drogues. De plus, le captage des particules par les cellules HUVEC est modulé par le niveau d’expression des récepteurs selectine E et P et aussi par la quantité de ligand libre. Ces résultats montrent clairement que le greffage du ligand confère aux particules des propriétés adhésives accrues et spécifiques ce qui permet leur usage postérieure comme vecteur pharmaceutique capable de cibler un récepteur particulier à la surface d’une cellule. Nous avons aussi démontré que l’interaction entre les nanoparticules et la membrane cellulaire peut aussi être contrôlée aussi bien par les propriétés mécaniques de la cellule que de la nanoparticule. Dans une première étape, nous avons mesuré à l’aide de l’appareil de forces de surface l’élasticité de cellules macrophagiques déposées sur différents substrats. En contrôlant l’interaction entre la cellule et le substrat sur lequel elle repose nous avons montré qu’il était possible de modifier à ii volonté les propriétés mécaniques cellulaire. Une augmentation de l’élasticité cellulaire s’accompagne d’une augmentation systématique de l’internalisation de nanoparticules de PLA non fonctionnalisées. Ceci suggère un rôle prépondérant des propriétés mécaniques du cortex cellulaire dans le captage des nanoparticules de PLA. Dans une seconde étape, nous avons étudié l’effet des propriétés mécaniques des nanoparticules sur leur capacité de pénétration cellulaire. Pour ce faire, nous avons synthétisé des particules d’hydrogel dont l’élasticité était contrôlée par le degré d’agent réticulant inclus dans leur formulation. Le contrôle des propriétés mécaniques des nanoparticules a été confirmé par la mesure du module de Young des particules par microscopie de force atomique. L’impact des propriétés mécaniques de ces particules sur leur capacité de pénétration dans les cellules vivantes a été étudié sur des cellules macrophagiques de souris. Les résultats ont montré que la cinétique d’internalisation, la quantité de particules internalisées et le mécanisme d’internalisation dépendent tous du module de Young des nanoparticules. Aucune différence dans le trajet intracellulaire des particules n’a pu être observée malgré le fait que différentes voies d’internalisation aient été observées. Ce dernier résultat peut s’expliquer par le fait que les nanoparticules sont internalisées par plusieurs voie simultanément ce qui facilite leur accumulation dans les organelles digestives intracellulaires. Un modèle simple permettant d’expliquer ces résultats a été proposé et discuté. / This thesis reports the study of physical chemical properties of polymeric nanoparticles and their impact on the interaction with living cells. In particular we endeavoured to study the effect of the adhesive and mechanical properties of the vector on its capacity of penetration of the cellular membrane. With this intention, we firstly used nanoparticules of polylactic acid (PLA) functionalized on their surfaces with a ligand of the selectines E and P receptor. The grafting of the ligand on the particle’s surface was carried out thanks to a new experimental method guaranteeing the presence of the active molecule on the surface of the particle during its whole life cycle. This method consists in mixing a polymer functionalized with the ligand with another polymer not functionalized. The presence of the ligand on the surface of the nanoparticules formed starting from this mixture of polymers was confirmed by ToF SIMS analysis. We could show that the particles having the ligand grafted on their surface exhibit a higher adhesive capacity than their non-functionalized counterpart on endothelial cells HUVEC activated by various drugs. Nanoparticles adhesion on cells membrane was modulated by the level of expression of the receptors selectine E and P and also by the quantity of free ligand. These results show clearly that the functionalized particles possess all the characteristics of a pharmaceutical vector capable of targeting a particular receptor on a cell surface. The interaction between nanoparticules and cellular membrane can also be controlled by the mechanical properties of the cell as well as of the nanoparticule. To demonstrate it we have measured the elasticity of macrophagic cells deposited on various substrates using the SFA. We have thus showed that it was possible to control the cell mechanical properties at will by controlling the interaction between the cell and the substrate on which it rests. An increase of the cell elasticity is accompanied by an increase of the internalization of non-functionalized PLA nanoparticules. This suggests a major role of cytocortical mechanical properties in the capture of hard PLA particles. iv Lastly, we studied the effect of the mechanical properties of the nanoparticules on their cellular penetration capacity. With this intention, we synthesized hydrogel particles whose elasticity was controlled by the degree of crosslinking agent included in their formulation. The control of the mechanical properties of the nanoparticules was confirmed by the measurement of the Young modulus of the particles by AFM. The interaction of these particles with macrophagess showed that the mechanical properties of the particles affect various aspects related to the internalization of the nanoparticles. The internalization kinetics, the quantity of internalized particles and the mechanism of internalization depend all on the Young modulus of the nanoparticules. No differences in the intracellular pathway could be observed in spite of the fact that various pathways of internalization were observed for these nanoparticules. This last result can be explained by the fact that the nanoparticules are internalized by several mechanisms of simultaneously which facilitates their accumulation in intracellular digestive organelles. A simple model explaining these results is proposed and discussed.

La réduction de la taille des particules jusqu’à l’obtention de nanocristaux est l’une des approches utilisées afin d’améliorer la pénétration cutanée des médicaments à usage topique. Nous proposons que la fabrication d’une formulation semi solide (hydrogel) à base de nanosuspension de docosanol, aboutira à une diffusion du principe actif supérieure à celle du produit commercial Abreva®, à travers des membranes synthétiques de polycarbonates. Le broyage humide est la technique proposée pour la production des nanoparticules de docosanol. Nous proposons aussi la préparation d’une formulation semi-solide (hydrogel) à usage topique à partir de la nanosuspension de docosanol. La nanosuspension de docosanol est obtenue par dispersion du docosanol en solution aqueuse en présence du polymère stabilisant hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC) et du surfactant laurylsulfate de sodium (SDS) suivi d’un broyage humide à faible ou à haute énergie. L’hydrogel de docosanol nanoformulé est préparé à l’aide de la nanosuspension de docosanol qui subit une gélification par le carbopol Ultrez 21 sous agitation mécanique suivie d’une neutralisation au triéthanolamine TEA. La taille des particules de la nanosuspension et de l’hydrogel a été déterminée par diffusion dynamique de la lumière (DLS). Une méthode analytique de chromatographie liquide à haute performance (HPLC) munie d’un détecteur évaporatif (ELSD) a été développée et validée pour évaluer la teneur de docosanol dans les préparations liquides, dans les différentes nanosuspensions et dans les hydrogels de docosanol. L’état de cristallinité des nanocristaux dans la nanosuspension et dans l’hydrogel a été étudié par calorimétrie différentielle à balayage. La morphologie de la nanosuspension et de l’hydrogel de docosanol a été examinée par microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB). Les propriétés rhéologiques et de stabilité physique à différentes températures ont été aussi étudiées pour la formulation semi-solide (hydrogel). De même, la libération in vitro du docosanol contenu dans l’hydrogel et dans le produit commercial Abreva® a été étudiée à travers deux membranes de polycarbonates de taille de pores 400 et 800 nm. Dans le cas de nanosuspensions, des cristaux de docosanol de taille nanométrique ont été produits avec succès par broyage humide. Les nanoparticules de tailles variant de 197 nm à 312 nm ont été produites pour des pourcentages différents en docosanol, en polymère HPC et en surfactant SDS. Après lyophilisation, une augmentation de la taille dépendant de la composition de la formulation a été observée tout en restant dans la gamme nanométrique pour la totalité presque des formulations étudiées. Dans le cas des hydrogels examinés, la taille moyenne des particules de docosanol est maintenue dans la gamme nanométrique avant et après lyophilisation. L’analyse thermique des mélanges physiques, des nanosuspensions et des hydrogels de docosanol a révélé la conservation de l’état de cristallinité des nanocristaux de docosanol après broyage et aussi après gélification. L’examen par microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB) a montré que la nanosuspension et l’hydrogel ont tous deux une morphologie régulière et les nanoparticules ont une forme sphérique. De plus les nanoparticules de la nanosuspension ont presque la même taille inférieure à 300 nm en accord avec le résultat obtenu par diffusion dynamique de la lumière (DLS). Les nanoparticules de l’hydrogel ont une légère augmentation de taille par rapport à celle de la nanosuspension, ce qui est en accord avec les mesures de DLS. D’après les mesures rhéologiques, l’hydrogel de docosanol a un comportement pseudoplastique et un faible degré de thixotropie. L’étude de stabilité physique a montré que les formulations d’hydrogel sont stables à basse température (5°C) et à température ambiante (21°C) pendant une période d’incubation de 13 semaines et instable au-delà de 30°C après deux semaines. La méthode HPLC-ELSD a révélé des teneurs en docosanol comprises entre 90% et 110% dans le cas des nanosuspensions et aux alentours de 100% dans le cas de l’hydrogel. L’essai de diffusion in vitro a montré qu’il y a diffusion de docosanol de l’hydrogel à travers les membranes de polycarbonates, qui est plus marquée pour celle de pore 800 nm, tandis que celui du produit commercial Abreva® ne diffuse pas. Le broyage humide est une technique bien adaptée pour la préparation des nanosuspensions docosanol. Ces nanosuspensions peuvent être utilisée comme base pour la préparation de l’hydrogel de docosanol nanoformulé. / Reducing the particle size to nanocrystals is one of the approaches used to improve the percutaneous penetration of topical dosage form. We propose that the preparation of a semi solid formulation of docosanol, can lead to higher diffusion of docosanol than in commercial product Abreva® through polycarbonate membranes. Wet ball milling is the proposed technique for docosanol nanoparticles preparation. We propose also the preparation of topical semi-solid formulation from docosanol nanosuspension. Docosanol nanosuspension is obtained from docosanol dispersion in aqueous solution in presence of the stabilizer polymer hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC) and the surfactant sodium laurylsulfate (SDS) followed by wet ball milling at low or high energy. Nanoformulated hydrogel of docosanol is prepared from docosanol nanosuspension which is gellified by carbopol Ultrez 21 under vigorous stirring followed by neutralization with triethanolamine TEA. Nanosuspension and hydrogel particle size was characterized by dynamic light scattering. An analytical method of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with an evaporative detector (ELSD) has been developed and validated for docosanol content quantification in liquid preparation, in different nanosuspensions and in docosanol hydrogels. The crystalline state of nanosuspension and hydrogel nanocrystals was studied by scanning differential calorimetry (DSC). The morphology of nanosuspension and hydrogel was evaluated by Scanning electronic microscopy SEM. Rheological properties and physical stability at different temperatures were studied for semi-solid formulation. In vitro docosanol release from hydrogel and from the commercial product Abreva® was studied through two polycarbonate membranes of pore size 400 and 800 nm. In nanosuspensions, nanosized crystals of docosanol have been successfully produced by wet ball milling. Nanoparticles of size ranged from 197 nm to 312 nm could be obtained by percentage variation of docosanol, of polymer HPC and surfactant SDS. After freeze drying, an increase in size relative to formulation composition was observed but the size particle is in nanometric range for almost all studied formulations. In case of prepared hydrogels, mean particle size of docosanol is maintained in nanometric range before and after freeze drying. Thermal analysis of physical mixtures, docosanol nanosuspensions and hydrogels showed that crystalline structure of docosanol nanocrystals was conserved after milling and after hydrogel preparation. The SEM exam showed that the nanosuspension and hydrogel has similar regular crystal morphology and nanoparticles shape is spherical. Nanosuspension particles have almost the same particle size, less than 300 nm in agreement with DLS result. Hydrogel size particle showed a slight increase comparing to nanosuspension’s one which is in agreement with DLS result. Up to rheological measurement, docosanol hydrogel has a pseudoplastic behavior and small thixotropic degree. Physical stability study showed that the hydrogel is stable at 5 °C and 21°C during 13 weeks and instable above 30°C after two weeks. HPLC-ELSD determined that docosanol content is in the acceptance limit range [90% to 110%] for docosanol nanosuspension and close to 100% in docosanol hydrogel. In vitro diffusion test revealed that docosanol nanoparticles were diffused from hydrogel through polycarbonates membranes that was greater for the 800 nm pore membrane, while the commercial product Abreva® does not diffuse through any of the membranes (400 nm and 800 nm). Wet ball milling is a great technique for docosanol nanosuspension preparation. Nanosuspensions can be used as base for the preparation of semi-solid nanoformulation of docosanol.

Microfluidics covers the science of manipulating small quantities of fluids using microscale devices with great potential in analysis, multiplexing, automation and high-throughput screening. Compared to conventional systems, microfluidics benefits from miniaturization resulting in shortened time of experiments, decreased sample and reagent consumptions as well as reduced overall costs. For microfluidic devices where further weight and cost reduction is additionally required, stimuli-responsive hydrogels are particularly interesting materials since they can convert an environmental stimulus directly to mechanical work without any extra power source. Hydrogels are used as chemostats, micropumps, and chemo-mechanical valves in microfluidics. Existing studies about hydrogels for flow control reported on hydrogels responsive to only one stimulus, including temperature, pH value, and solvent. Combining temperature and pH stimuli within one material is an interesting approach, which allows internal as well as external flow control and broadens potential applications. Among the variety of temperature- and pH-responsive monomers, N-isopropylacrylamide (NiPAAm) and acrylic acid (AA) are considered as ideal building blocks to obtain a hydrogel with pronounced stimuli response. There are different architectures for realizing a temperature- and pH-responsive hydrogel with NiPAAm and AA (e.g. copolymer gels, interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs), semi-IPNs, or graft copolymer gels). Each approach has its inherent benefits and disadvantages. Grafted hydrogels with a temperature-responsive backbone and pH-responsive graft chains are a promising architecture overcoming drawbacks of copolymer gels (loss of thermoresponsive behavior due to the comonomer), interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs, difficult fabrication of structured particles via soft lithography), and semi-IPNs (leakage of penetrating polymer). However, studies about multi-responsive grafted hydrogels for flow control in microfluidics are comparatively rare and further research is needed to emphasize their real potential. For this reason, the overall aim of this work was the synthesis of temperature- and pH-responsive grafted hydrogels based on NiPAAm and AA for flow control in microfluidics. This required the synthesis of a pH-responsive macromonomer by RAFT polymerization. As a suitable chain transfer agent with a carboxylic acid group for an end-group functionalization, 2-(dodecyl-thiocarbonothioylthio)-2-methylpropionic (DTP) acid was employed. The approach towards the synthesis of the pH-responsive macromonomer based on two key steps: (i) attaching a functional group, which retains during RAFT polymerization, and (ii) conducting the RAFT polymerization to synthesize the pH-responsive macromonomer. In total, four functionalizations for the macromonomer were investigated, including allyl, unconjugated vinyl, acrylamide, and styrene. End-group analysis and solubility tests revealed that macromonomers with a styrene functionalization are suitable for the synthesis of graft copolymer gels. A series of grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels with a PNiPAAm backbone and PAA-styrene graft chains (Mn = 4200 g/mol, Mw/Mn = 1.6) were prepared and characterized. The main goal was to identify suitable stimuli for an application as a chemo-mechanical valve and to show reversibility of the swelling and shrinking process. Importantly, the temperature sensitivity should be retained, while a pH response needs to be introduced. Equilibrium swelling studies quantified with the response ratio revealed that a grafting density of PAA-styrene between 0.25 and 1 mol-% provides a suitable response towards temperature, pH, salt, and solvent. Furthermore, the swelling and shrinking process is highly reproducible over four consecutive cycles for all four stimuli. In order to evaluate the swelling kinetics of grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels, the collective diffusion model extended by a volume specific surface was applied. The determined cooperative diffusion coefficients of net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene indicated faster response time with increasing PAA-styrene content. Remarkably, net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene containing 1 mol-% PAA-styrene exhibited an accelerated swelling rate by a factor of 9 compared to pure net-PNiPAAm. Rheological analysis of net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene showed that an increasing graft density leads to decreasing mechanical stability. The photopolymerization experiments showed that the gelation time linearly increases with the grafting density. Grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels were tested in two fluidic setups for flow control. A straightforward fluidic platform was developed consisting of a fluid reservoir, an inlet channel, an actuator chamber and an outlet channel. The actuator chamber was filled with crushed hydrogel particles. Accordingly, the fluid flow was directed by the active resistance of the hydrogel particles in the actuator chamber (i.e. swelling degree) and allowed flow control by the local environmental conditions. Flow rate studies showed that the fluid flow throttles when the inlet channel was provided with a solution in which the hydrogel swells (pH 9 buffer solution at room temperature). In contrast, the hydrogel-based valve opens immediately when a solution was used in which the hydrogel collapses. The advantageous properties of net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene were highlighted by using pH, salt and solvent stimulus in one experiment. Remarkably, the opening and closing function was reversible over six consecutive cycles. As part of a collaboration project with the chair of polymeric microsystems within the Cluster of Excellence Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (A. Richter and P. Frank), membrane assures hydraulic coupling in a chemo-fluidic membrane transistor (CFMT) and grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels were combined to emphasize the potential of both systems. Flow rate studies showed that 4 different stimuli can be used to control the opening and closing state of the CFMT. Multiple opening and closing cycles revealed no considerable changes in the valve function emphasizing a high potential for an application in microfluidics.

Une nouvelle plateforme hydrogel uniquement formée par l’association de nanocapsules lipidiques (NCLs) a été développée en s’inspirant de précédents travaux utilisant une gemcitabine modifiée. Afin de limiter la toxicité de l’hydrogel, la gemcitabine a été remplacée par la cytidine, rendue amphiphile par une chaîne aliphatique (Cyt-C16). Placée à l’interface huile/eau des NCLs, la Cyt-C16 permet la formation d’un réseau tridimensionnel de NCLs à l’origine de la gélification. Un plan de mélange a permis d’optimiser les procédés de formulation de 4 tailles de NCLs modèles. Les propriétés viscoélastiques des hydrogels sont modulables. Plus les concentrations en NCLs et Cyt-C16 sont élevées, plus le gel est « rigide », indépendamment de la taille des NCLs qui doit être supérieure à 50 nm pour permettre la gélification. Les hydrogels sont injectables et permettent une libération prolongée de NCLs (de taille mono-disperse), sans toxicité supplémentaire in vitro, du fait de la présence de la Cyt-C16. De plus, uniquement solubilisée dans l’huile,la Cyt-C16 permet d’obtenir un organogel, dont les propriétés viscoélastiques sont renforcées en augmentant sa concentration. L’injection sous-cutanée (SC) in vivo des deux gels est bien tolérée et entraine une réaction inflammatoire locale comparable à celle provoquée par un excipient pharmaceutiquement acceptable. Ces deux formes pourront être utilisées pour libérer de façon prolongée différents actifs. Deux applications précliniques des hydrogels ont été explorées, l’une utilisant la voie SC pour cibler les ganglions lymphatiques, la seconde permettant un traitement local des suites opératoires d’une résection de glioblastome. / An innovative hydrogel platform obtained by the association of lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) was based on the previous work on modified gemcitabine. To limit the inherent toxicity of the hydrogel, gemcitabine was replaced by cytidine, then modified by an aliphatic chain (Cyt-C16). The hydrogel network was allowed by H-bond interactions between cytidine moieties exposed at the oil/water interfaces of LNCs. An experimental plan provided the formulation processes for 4 optimized sizes of model LNCs. The gelation was only possible for LNC sizes higher than 50 nm, and the hydrogel viscoelastic properties are versatile. The hydrogel is more “rigid” when LNC and Cyt-C16 concentrations increase, independently of the LNC size. The hydrogels are injectable and allow a sustained release of LNCs (withmonodisperse size), without additional in vitrocytotoxicity due to Cyt-C16. Moreover, when solubilized in oil, Cyt-C16 alone produced an organogel platform, whose viscoelastic properties are strengthened increasing its concentration. Both types of gels showed a good biocompatibility after an in vivo subcutaneous (SC) injection, with a local inflammatory response similar to that of induced by an approved excipient. These two forms could be used to sustain the release of various drugs, and two preclinical applications of hydrogels have been explored : one using the SC route to target lymph nodes, and the second for local treatment after glioblastoma resection.