With the dwindling availability of petroleum, focus has shifted to renewable energy sources such as lignocellulosic biomass. Cellulose and hemicellulose are highly utilized components of biomass, and on the other hand, lignin is a plentiful, under-utilized component of the lignocellulosic biomass. Hence, utilization of the lignin component is necessary for the realization of an economically sustainable biorefinery model. Once depolymerized, lignin has the potential to replace petroleum-derived molecules. Further, a catalyst is capable of selectively removing the oxygen atoms without hydrogenating the aromatic components would be valuable. Bimetallic phosphides and zeolites are capable of selectively cleaving CAROMATIC–O bonds from aromatic compounds. In the present study, the applications of a bimetallic phosphides (FeMoP, RuMoP and NiMoP) for CAROMATIC–O bond cleavage and hydrogenation of C=O and C=C bond in the aromatic model compounds (Phenol, furfural, cinnamaldehyde, and CO2) were examined. The Fe:Mo ratio was varied in FeX Mo2−X P catalysts (0.88 to 1.55) to investigate the effect of catalyst acidity and hydrogenolysis capability via first principle calculations. The most acidic material was most selective for phenol to benzene. Further, combination of different transition metals with phosphorus were tested for hydrogenolysis and hydrogenation mechanism of phenol. Additionally, composition effect in RuXMo2−XP (X = 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2) have investigated for furfural and cinnamaldehyde hydrogenation. It was found that tuning in metal combination and composition results in control of binding energy and activation energy barrier which tune the selectivity for desire reaction and reaction pathway. Alternatively, highly active MWW-zeolite nanosheets have recently been explored for depolymerization in lignin. First, binding strength of different lignin dimers (phenolic and non-phenolic) was studied in terms of binding energy and binding mode over different terminated zeolite surface as a function of temperature and solvent. The optimized binding structure of lignin dimers were further considered to study the hydrogenolysis pathways over Al- and Sn-substituted MWW zeolite nanosheets. Generally, it was found that fully hydroxyl terminated surface, phenolic dimers and higher temperature in methanol pro- motes higher binding energy. Moreover, Al-substituted zeolite nanosheet resulted in lowering activation energy barriers significantly to cleave β-O-4 Linkages in Lignin dimers.

Thesis advisor: Lawrence T. Scott / The focus of this project was to probe the ability of various transition metal complexes to cleave carbon-carbon bonds in a C30H12 hemifullerene. The hemifullerene was synthesized in our lab from commercial 1-tetralone and bromonaphthalene in six steps. Palladium and nickel complexes were used to open the five membered rings along the periphery of the C30H12 bowl. Diphosphine complexes of nickel were capable of opening either all three five membered rings or one of the periphery five membered rings and the central six membered ring. / Thesis (BS) — Boston College, 2005. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry. / Discipline: College Honors Program.

Biodiesel has shown great promise to supplement the fossil diesel since it is a renewable energy resource and is environmentally friendly. However, the major obstacle to biodiesel large scale commercialization is the high production cost; so converting glycerol, the by-product of a biodiesel process, into value-added products is an efficient way to promote biodiesel production. 1,2-propanediol (1,2PD), also known as propylene glycol, is an important commodity chemical used for many applications such as polyester resins, liquid detergents and anti-freeze. It can be produced via dehydration of glycerol into acetol followed by hydrogenation of acetol into 1,2PD using a bi-functional catalyst. Currently high pressure gaseous hydrogen added for hydrogenation causes safety issues as well as additional costs of hydrogen purchasing, transportation and storage. Therefore, the utilization of the in situ hydrogen produced by steam reforming of a hydrogen carrier could be a novel route for this process. In this work, processes of glycerol hydrogenolysis to produce 1,2PD have been developed using different hydrogen sources, i.e. molecular hydrogen and in situ hydrogen produced by steam reforming. Three different preparation methods were attempted to prepare a Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst in a glycerol hydrogenolysis process, which were oxalate gel-coprecipitation, Na2CO3 coprecipitation and impregnation. The catalyst prepared by oxalate gel-coprecipitation showed the highest activity for production of 1,2PD. It was also found that the addition of alumina did not only improve the activity but also enhanced the stability of the Cu/ZnO catalyst as shown by the catalyst recycling experiments. The morphological and chemical properties of the catalysts were characterized via XRD, NH3 TPD, TGA and TEM. Compared with other preparation methods, the Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst prepared by oxalate gel-coprecipitation exhibited a well-mixed form for all the metals as suggested by the XRD and TGA results; the particle size of the Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst was smaller as shown in the XRD and TEM results, and also based on NH3 TPD analysis the Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst showed stronger acidic sites. When Ni was loaded onto the Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst by oxalate gel-coprecipitation, it was found that the activity for acetol hydrogenation was improved but the overall glycerol hydrogenolysis reaction was slower. This was mainly due to the reduced amount of strong acidic sites caused by the addition of Ni as observed from the NH3 TPD results. 2wt% Pd supported on a Cu/MgO/Al2O3 catalyst was used in this process. Higher reaction rate and higher 1,2PD selectivity could be obtained compared with a Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst. However, a significant deactivation was observed when the spent catalyst was used. The catalyst deactivation was mainly due to catalyst sintering during the reaction resulting in a larger particle size as suggested by XRD results. The activation energies for the glycerol hydrogenolysis reaction using Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 and Pd supported on Cu/MgO/Al2O3 catalysts have been calculated. The activation energy was calculated to be 69.39kJ/mole using a Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst and 113.62kJ/mol using a Pd supported on Cu/MgO/Al2O3 catalyst. It is suggested that the reaction was chemically kinetically controlled using both catalysts and the reaction using the Pd supported on Cu/MgO/Al2O3 catalyst was more temperature dependent. It was found that the 1,2PD selectivity was strongly dependent on hydrogen pressure. The low 1,2PD selectivity at lower hydrogen pressure was due to the formation of by-products caused by side reactions with acetol. The kinetic data of acetol hydrogenation suggested that the acetol hydrogenation step was significantly faster than the overall reaction and hence the glycerol dehydration step was the rate-determining-step. In the glycerol hydrogenolysis process using in situ hydrogen, the activities of the Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalysts prepared by different methods were determined and the experimental results show that the catalyst prepared by oxalate gel-coprecipitation has the best catalytic activity for glycerol conversion and 1,2PD selectivity. With Ni loaded onto a Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst, the 1,2PD selectivity was improved and the glycerol conversion was lower. It might be because Ni could improve the steam reforming activity to produce more hydrogen, but due to the reduced strong acidic sites based on the NH3 TPD results glycerol conversion was decreased. Cu/MgO/Al2O3 catalysts prepared by oxalate gel-coprecipitation were used in this process and the activity was found to be higher, i.e. higher glycerol conversion and 1,2PD selectivity, compared with the Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst due to a higher amount of acidic sites based on the NH3 TPD results; the Cu/Mg/Al composition was optimized. When Ni was added into a Cu/MgO/Al2O3 catalyst, it was found that with only 1mole% Ni loaded, the glycerol conversion was lower than that without Ni loaded and the 1,2PD selectivity was slightly improved; when the Ni loading was increased to 5mole%, the catalyst was almost completely inactive, since when 5mole% Ni was loaded, the acidic sites were almost completely eliminated as observed from the NH3 TPD results. When Pd was added onto a Cu/MgO/Al2O3 catalyst the 1,2PD selectivity was significantly improved. When Pd was loaded, more surface hydrogen atoms were provided as observed from the H2 TPD results. Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 and Cu/MgO/Al2O3 catalysts have been recycled and reused to investigate the stability of the catalysts. All the catalysts were deactivated after they were recycled and reused, since it was apparent that catalyst sintering occurred during the reaction resulting in a larger particle size based on the XRD results. The deactivation of the spent catalyst was also possibly due to the formation of carbonate when the metals were contacted with CO2 which was formed via steam reforming.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2008. / The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on July 31, 2009) Includes bibliographical references.

<p> The hydrogenolysis reactions of a series of small paraffinic hydrocarbons (propane, n-butane, isobutane, isopentane, and neopentane) were examined using a continuous stirred-tank catalytic reactor. The catalyst was 0.5 weight percent ruthenium scipported on γ-alumina.</p> <p> The reaction orders with respect to hydrocarbon and hydrogen and the activation energies were determined for the reaction of each hydrocarbon. The order of reactivity was also examined.</p> <p> The product distributions from each hydrocarbon were measured over a wide range of conversion (5 to 80%) and several temperatures. Reaction networks proposing reversible adsorption-desorption of the hydrocarbons and irreversible rupture of the carbon-carbon bonds in the surface species were applied to these data.</p> <p> Some conclusions were made concerning the mechanism of hydrogenolysis and the rate-limiting step.</p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

<p> A catalytic tubular reactor has been built and interfaced to a minicomputer located at some distance from the actual process equipment. Software has been written to control and monitor the hydrogenolysis of butane within this reactor. The principal aims of this thesis are to describe the process equipment, to detail the structure of the real-time control and monitor software developed for use on a Supernova minicomputer and to demonstrate that the process may indeed be controlled by direct digital control. Finally, in view of the success of the study, a recommendation to explore the applicability of modern control theory is made, particularly, the formulation of an optimal control and changeover policy and the development of multivariable control. </p> / Thesis / Master of Engineering (MEngr)

This investigation was based upon the work of Lenth and DuPuis and Stengel and Maple, who hydrogenated sugar suspended in methanol at 240°C and 1500 lbs. per sq. in. for three hours with the primary purpose of developing a new process. to produce glycerine to make up for the shortage created in World War II. The products of the hydrogenation were water, propylene glycol, glycerol and congeners, and a residue made up of the tarry decomposition products of sugar. The actual glycerol and congeners fraction obtained by Lenth and DuPuis was secured from the Miner Laboratories in Chicago. This impure glycerine fraction and propylene glycol were mixed together, and its suitability as an automotive antifreeze was tested. AB far as viscosity and freezing point depression were concerned, such an automotive antifreeze compares favorably with ethylene glycol. The economics of the process were studied, and a tentative plant was designed to produce 3000 tons per year which would require a capital investment of about $529,775 and have a wholesale price of $0.217 per lb. with sugar costing $0.04. This coat may be reduced by catalyst recovery and a reduction in sugar cost. / M.S.

In many catalytic systems, the catalytic performance of a metal supported catalyst would be affected by the size and shape of the metals, and this phenomena is called structure sensitivity. Generally, the structure sensitivity effect is considered being led by a combination of geometric property change and electronic property change of the surface metals. The particle size variation is an effective way to change the surface structure of the supported metal catalyst, leading to different fractions of the active sites exposing on the support that would take effect on catalyzing the reaction. In this project, a series of Ir/MgAl₂O₄ catalysts with different particle sizes that less than 2nm were utilized for ethane and n-butane hydrogenolysis reactions to study the structure sensitivity effect as well as the potential reaction mechanism. The results show that the activity on the catalysts with nanoparticles and mostly single atoms is evidently higher than that with the subnanometer clusters in both reactions, but the selectivity to the target product of ethane is not quite dependent on the particle size in the n-butane hydrogenolysis. After the fundamental analysis, it is proposed that the reaction mechanism of alkanes hydrogenolysis on the single atom catalysts including single active sites is probably distinctive from that generally accepted on the large particles containing multiple active sites from literature. For n-butane hydrogenolysis, the parallel reaction pathway of central C-C bond cleavage is dominant at low temperature or in the low conversion range. As the temperature going up or the conversion increasing at a certain temperature, the parallel reaction pathway of terminal C-C bond cleavage becomes more and more competitive. The series reaction pathway of hydrogenolysis on propane intermediate would always take place, but the level would be drastically enhanced when the conversion keeps increasing in the very high range. The C-C bond cleavage on the ethane product would not easily happen unless the conversion is close to 100%. / M. S. / Shale gas is natural gas trapped in shale rocks. Among all the countries that have abundant shale gas reserves, the US, benefited from advanced extraction technology, has the largest production of it. What’s more, the production rate will keep increasing at least for the coming 20 years, and shale gas will eventually become the largest source for natural gas. After extraction, there is a series of treatments shale gas has to go through before it can be utilized, catalytic reaction of alkanes (molecules found in most fuels) is one of these essential procedures. Although they are among the most important compositions of shale gas, different types of alkanes are difficult to separate and purify through traditional methods like condensation. To overcome this obstacle, this thesis focuses on exploring efficient catalysts to convert the n-butane (a straight chain alkane with 4 carbon atoms) to ethane (alkane with 2 carbon atoms). Two reactions are involved: n-butane hydrogenolysis and ethane hydrogenolysis. Catalysts are some specific materials that can accelerate certain chemical reactions. The catalysts discussed in this thesis are tiny metal (iridium) particles attached to the support material (magnesium aluminate). In this study, the performance of these catalysts with different particle sizes were tested for the above mentioned hydrogenolysis reactions. The results show that changing the particle size of the catalysts considerably affects the rate of these catalytic reactions. The fundamentals of the catalytic system presented in this work can also help the researchers to rationally design the catalysts aiming at higher efficiency and lower cost in the future work.

Dans cette thèse, la synthèse, la caractérisation et les applications en catalyse de nanoparticules mono- et bimétalliques à base de rhodium sont décrites. Le rhodium a été choisi comme métal central de cette étude en raison de son intérêt reconnu en catalyse, principalement pour les réactions d'hydrogénation et d'hydroformylation. La synthèse de nanoparticules de rhodium monométalliques constitue le coeur de ce travail. Elle a été réalisée par décomposition du complexe organométallique [Rh(C3H5)3] en solution, sous pression de dihydrogène et en présence de différents stabilisants tels que des ligands et des polymères pour contrôler la croissance des particules. Certaines nanoparticules ont été déposées sur la surface d'une silice magnétique fonctionnalisée par des groupements amines utilisée comme support, dans un objectif de récupération plus aisée pour le recyclage des catalyseurs. Diverses nanoparticules bimétalliques ont également été préparées par co-décomposition du complexe [Rh(C3H5)3] avec d'autres précurseurs organométalliques, incluant [Ni(cod)2], [Ru(cod)(cot)], [Pt(nor)3] et [Pd(dba)2]2. En modulant les ratios de métaux entre [Rh] et le second métal [M], ainsi que la nature et la quantité de stabilisant utilisé pour la synthèse, des nanoparticules de tailles et de compositions chimiques différentes ont pu être obtenues. La caractérisation des nanoparticules ainsi préparées a été menée en utilisant une combinaison de techniques de l'état de l'art (TEM, HRTEM, STEM-EDX, ICP, WAXS, EXAFS, XANES, XPS, RMN ...). Pour certaines nanoparticules de rhodium, des études de surface ont été réalisées, par adsorption du CO sur la surface des particules et un suivi par des techniques spectroscopiques (FT-IR, RMN) pour sonder leur état de surface. Un autre aspect de ce travail a concerné l'évaluation des nanoparticules synthétisées dans des réactions catalytiques, en particulier réactions d'hydrogénation avec des particules monométalliques de Rh et réaction d'hydrogénolyse avec des nanoparticules bimétalliques RhNiOx. Dans le cas de la catalyse d'hydrogénation, des études en conditions colloïdales et supportées ont été réalisées. L'originalité de ce travail réside dans le développement d'outils de synthèse simples inspirés de la chimie organométallique pour obtenir des nanoparticules à base de rhodium bien contrôlées en termes de taille, distribution en taille, composition et état de surface, tous ces paramètres étant importants quelle que soit l'application visée. L'intérêt des nanoparticules obtenues en catalyse a également été mis en évidence dans différentes réactions. Ce travail de thèse offre de nouvelles opportunités de recherche, tant en nanochimie qu'en catalyse. / In this thesis, synthesis, characterization and catalytic applications of mono- and bi-metallic rhodium-based nanoparticles are reported. Rhodium has been chosen as a primary metal given its high interest in catalysis, mainly in hydrogenation and hydroformylation reactions. The synthesis of mono-metallic rhodium nanoparticles (NPs) is the core of this work. It was performed by decomposition of the organometallic complex [Rh(C3H5)3] in solution under dihydrogen pressure and in the presence of different stabilizers including ligands and polymers to control the growth of the particles. Selected nanoparticles were deposited on the surface of amino-functionalized magnetic silica as a support for recovery and recycling concerns in catalysis. Diverse bi-metallic nanoparticles have been also prepared in one-pot conditions by co-decomposition of the [Rh(C3H5)3] with other organometallic precursors including [Ni(cod)2], [Ru(cod)(cot)], [Pt(nor)3] and [Pd(dba)2]2. Tuning of the metal ratios between [Rh] and the second metal [M], or of the nature and the amount of the stabilizer used for the synthesis allowed to obtain nanoparticles of different sizes and chemical compositions. The characterization of the obtained nanoparticles was performed by using a combination of state-of-art techniques (TEM, HRTEM, STEM-EDX, ICP, WAXS, EXAFS, Xanes, XPS, NMR...). Surface studies were carried out in some cases, by adsorbing CO on the surface of the particles which was followed by spectroscopic techniques (FT-IR, NMR) to probe their surface state. Some of these nanoparticles were investigated in catalytic reactions, mainly hydrogenation with Rh NPs and hydrogenolysis for RhNiOx NPs. Both colloidal and supported catalytic studies were carried out in the case of hydrogenation catalysis. The originality of this work lies in the development of simple synthesis tools inspired from organometallic chemistry to get well-controlled rhodium-based nanoparticles in terms of size, size distribution, composition and surface state, all these parameters being important whatever the target application. The interest of the obtained nanoparticles in catalysis has been also evidenced in different reactions. This PhD work may open new opportunities of research both in nanochemistry and catalysis.

A celulose é o biopolímero mais abundante na natureza e apresenta grande potencial para ser processada e produzir de maneira sustentável biocombustíveis e produtos químicos. A conversão catalítica é um dos meios mais promissores para transformação da celulose. A separação entre produtos e catalisadores é uma etapa importante para indústria, o que coloca a catálise heterogênea em posição privilegiada como via de conversão, devido à facilidade de separação entre produto e catalisador. A hidrogenólise é uma via de transformação que promove a quebra de ligações C-C e a retirada de átomos de oxigênio, levando a uma gama de combustíveis e produtos químicos. Os carbetos de metais de transição suportados em carvão ativo são efetivos na quebra de ligações C-C, enquanto o paládio atua tanto na quebra de ligações C-C como em etapas de hidrogenação. Assim, este trabalho estudou as propriedades estruturais e catalíticas de catalisadores de carbeto de tungstênio suportados em carvão ativado e promovidos com paládio. Foram preparados e caracterizados catalisadores de WXC sem promotor e com 1 e 2% de Pd. As medidas de fisissorção de N2 revelou que os catalisadores são formados por uma mistura de micro e mesoporos. A análise de difração de raios X revelou predominância da fase W2C nos catalisadores promovidos por Pd, enquanto que nos catalisadores ausentes de Pd ocorreu um misto de fases carbeto. As medidas de XPS revelaram que quanto maior quantidade de Pd na amostra, se tem mais tungstênio exposto na superfície. A seguir, os catalisadores foram aplicados em reações de conversão de celulose sob pressão de hidrogênio. A conversão de celulose foi determinada por gravimetria (balanço de massa) e termogravimetria e os produtos foram identificados e quantificados por cromatografia gasosa GC e por HPLC. Foram obtidos rendimentos em torno de 40% para etileno glicol, com 77% de conversão de celulose, em reações de 120 min a 220°C com o catalisador 2% WXC/C. Além disso, foram testados diferentes substratos e catalisadores para se entender o mecanismo de conversão e o papel de cada componente do catalisador na rota reacional. A obtenção de etileno glicol a partir da celulose se passa através da hidrólise do polissacarídeo em monômeros de glicose, reação retro-aldol produzindo glicolaldeído e hidrogenação para obtenção do etileno glicol. / Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer in nature and has great potential to be processed and to sustainably produce biofuels and chemicals. The catalytic conversion is one of the most promising ways for processing cellulose. The separation between the products and the catalysts is an important step for the industry, which puts the heterogeneous catalysis in prime position as route of conversion due to the easiness of separation of product and catalyst. Hydrogenolysis is a processing way that promotes breaking C-C bonds and the removal of oxygen atoms, leading to a variety of fuels and chemicals. The carbides of transition metals supported on activated carbon are effectives in breaking C-C bonds, while palladium acts both in breaking C-C bonds and in the hydrogenation steps. So, this work studied the structural and catalytic properties of catalysts of tungsten carbides supported on activated carbon and promoted with palladium. Catalysts WXC without promoter and 1 and 2% Pd were prepared and characterized. The N2 physisorption measurements showed that a mixture of micro and mesopores forms the catalysts. The analysis of X-ray diffraction revealed the predominance of W2C phase in the catalysts promoted with Pd, while in the catalysts absent from Pd a mixture of carbide phases occurred. XPS measurements showed that the greater amount of Pd in the sample, it is more tungsten exposed on the surface. Then, the catalysts were applied in cellulose conversion reactions under hydrogen pressure. The conversion of cellulose was determined by gravimetry (mass balance) and thermogravimetry, and the products were identified and quantified by GC and HPLC. Yields around 40% for ethylene glycol were obtained, corresponding to 77% conversion of cellulose, in reactions performed at 220 °C and 120 min reaction time, with catalyst 2% PdWXC/C. Additionally, different substrates and catalysts were tested for understanding the conversion mechanism and the role of each component of the catalyst in the reaction route. Obtaining ethylene glycol from cellulose goes through hydrolysis of the polysaccharide into glucose monomers, retro-aldol reaction producing glycolaldehyde and hydrogenating to obtain ethylene glycol.