<p>The diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary diseases still rely on pulmonary function tests that offer archaic or insensitive biomarkers of lung structure and function. As a consequence, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is the third leading cause of death in the US, and the hospitalization costs for asthma are on the order of $29 Billion. Pulmonary diseases have created a large and unsustainable economic burden, and hence there is still a dire need for biomarkers that can predict early changes in lung function. The work presented in this thesis looks to address this very issue, by taking advantage of the unique properties of hyperpolarized (HP) <super>129</super>Xe in conjunction with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to probe the fundamental function of the lung - gas-exchange. </p><p>While a bulk of the inhaled HP <super>129</super>Xe stays in the alveolar spaces, its moderate solubility in the pulmonary tissues causes a small fraction of this xenon in the alveolar spaces to diffuse into the pulmonary barrier tissue and plasma, and further into the red blood cells (RBC). Additionally, when in either of these compartments, xenon experiences a unique shift in its resonance frequency from the gas-phase (barrier - 198 ppm, RBC - 217 ppm). These unique resonances are collectively called the dissolved-phase of xenon. As the pathway taken by xenon to reach the RBCs is identical to that of oxygen, this dissolved-phase offers a non-invasive probe to study the oxygen transfer pathway, and imaging its distribution, to first order, would give us an image of gas-exchange in the lung.</p><p>Gas-exchange is controlled by ventilation, perfusion, and lastly diffusion of gases across the capillary membrane. This process of diffusion is dictated by Fick's first law of diffusion, and hence the volume of gas taken up by the capillary blood stream depends on the alveolar surface area, and the interstitial thickness. Interestingly, changes in these factors can be measured using the resonances of xenon. Changes in the alveolar surface area brought on by diseases like emphysema will increase the diffusion of xenon within the alveolus. Thus, by using diffusion-weighted imaging of the gas-phase of <super>129</super>Xe, which is the focus of chapter 3, one can extract the `apparent diffusion coefficient' (ADC) of xenon, that is sensitive to the changes in the alveolar surface area. The dissolved-phase on the other hand, while sensitive to the surface area, is also sensitive to subtle changes in the interstitial thickness. In fact, after the application of an RF pulse on the dissolved-phase, the recovery time for the xenon signal in the RBCs is significantly delayed by micron scale thickening of the interstitium. This delayed signal recovery can be used as a sensitive marker for diffusion impairment in the lung. </p><p>While direct imaging of the dissolved-phase was shown to be feasible, truly quantifying gas-exchange in the lung will require two additional technical advances - 1) As the gas-phase is the source magnetization for the dissolved-phase signal, it is imperative to acquire both the gas and dissolved-phase images in a single breath. The technical details of this achievement are discussed in chapters 4 and 5. 2) As the dissolved-phase consists of both the barrier and the RBC components, obtaining a fundamental image of gas-exchange in the lung will require creating independent images of <super>129</super>Xe in the barrier and <super>129</super>Xe in the RBCs. This goal first required creating a global metric of gas-transfer in the lung (chapter 6), which aided the implementation of the 1-point Dixon acquisition strategy to separate the components of the dissolved-phase. In conjunction with aim 1, it was finally possible to image all three resonances of <super>129</super>Xe in a single breath (chapter 7). These <super>129</super>Xe-RBC images were acquired in healthy volunteers and their efficacy was tested in subjects with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). These IPF subjects are known for their characteristic diffusion limitation, and in regions of fibrosis shown on their CT scans, the <super>129</super>Xe-RBC images showed gas-transfer defects. </p><p>Hyperpolarized <super>129</super>Xe MRI thus provides a non-invasive, ionizing radiation free method to probe ventilation, microstructural changes and most importantly, gas-exchange. These preliminary results indicate that xenon MRI has potential as a sensitive tool in therapeutic clinical trials to evaluate longitudinal changes in lung function.</p> / Dissertation

Le paysage des thérapies inhalées connaît de profondes évolutions depuis les deux dernières décennies, avec pour objet la considération nouvelle du poumon comme un site de transfert des agents thérapeutiques vers le compartiment sanguin. Cette approche originale est apparue par la combinaison de développements théoriques et pratiques multiples impliqués dans la mise au point de nombreux médicaments, depuis le traitement de la douleur et du diabète jusqu'à la vaccination et le traitement de certains cancers. La quantité effective de médicament délivrée par aérosols est pondérée par de nombreux facteurs dont le mode et les conditions d’inhalation, les propriétés physiques des gaz en jeu, la morphologie des voies respiratoires ou encore les propriétés physico-chimiques des particules véhiculées. Les développements en cours ces quatre dernières années ont été conditionnés par des résultats encore mal compris, soulignant les limites des connaissances sur le transport et le dépôt d'aérosols dans le poumon. Ces manques mettent en avant le besoin d'outils performants pour l'évaluation du dépôt de particules dans les voies respiratoires.Les techniques d’imagerie permettent à la fois l’évaluation spatiale et quantitative du dépôt, avec pour seules références aujourd’hui, les techniques de médecine nucléaire. Outre l’aspect ionisant de ces techniques, elles bénéficient d’une sensibilité de détection encore inégalée. Elles demeurent néanmoins limitées par des résolutions spatiale et temporelle faibles, rendant le plus souvent difficile tant l’interprétation du dépôt que le rôle joué par les principaux mécanismes de clairance dans les voies aériennes. Depuis la fin des années 1990, les techniques de résonance magnétique imagent des noyaux hyperpolarisés (hélium-3 et xenon-129) et établissent de nouveaux standards dans l’exploration de la fonction pulmonaire.Cette thèse établit, sur la base de l’IRM de l’hélium-3 hyperpolarisé, une nouvelle modalité d’imagerie pour détecter et quantifier le dépôt d’aérosols dans les voies aériennes.Dans un premier temps, et dans un contexte où l’imagerie par résonance magnétique ne s’était pas encore penchée sur la problématique des aérosols thérapeutiques, un vaste travail d’investigation a été mené pour évaluer la sensibilité de l’IRM de l’hélium-3 hyperpolarisé au dépôt d’aérosols marqués à base d’oxyde de fer superparamagnétique. Le second volet de ce travail s’est porté sur la validation de notre méthode d’évaluation, et sur le développement de la quantification du dépôt d’aérosols. Nous avons enfin pu tester la reproductibilité de notre méthode d’évaluation du dépôt in vivo chez le rat, grâce à la réalisation d’une plateforme de ventilation et d’administration de gaz et d’aérosols dédiée, SAGAS. / Inhalation therapy has broadened its field of application over the last two decades by considering the lung not only as an organ to cure, but also as a portal toward systemic circulation. This new approach is being made possible by the emergence of biotherapeutics and a greater understanding of the absorption properties of the lung. Systemic delivery across the oronasal route was then investigated for a number of indications including migraine, diabetes, pain, and cancer. However, progress into the market of systemic aerosolized drug delivery has been slowed down to-date by a number of confounding factors including rapid clearance, instability, long-term toxicity, and dosing issues. Final drug distribution in such complex geometries strongly depends on a variety of parameters like the aerosol administration protocol, particle size, density, and physicochemical properties, as well as the airway geometry. Independently of drug formulation and pharmacokinetic considerations, these parameters determine the deposition distribution throughout the lung. Quantification and spatial localization are primordially needed to better control and optimize drug concentration at specific or less- and nonspecific sites. Nuclear medicine techniques are currently the only available modalities that combine both aerosol quantification and regional localization. They are considered as reference techniques even though they remain limited by their spatial and temporal resolutions as well as by patient exposure to radiations. With regard to lung imaging, hyperpolarized helium-3 MRI has been developed as a powerful tool to quantitatively characterize the parenchyma and the organ function and morphology. The technique is innocuous and provides millimeter and sub-second resolutions with rather high signal to noise ratios. In this thesis, a new imaging modality was developed on the grounds of hyperpolarized helium-3 MRI to probe and quantify aerosol deposition in the airways. In the first part of the thesis, I describe the potential of helium-3 MRI to probe aerosol deposition by using superparamagnetic contrast agents. The second part mainly focuses on the validation of this new modality by comparing it to a reference technique, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), and computational fluid dynamics. The last part of the manuscript is dedicated to aerosol administration and in vivo measurements in rat lungs. This experiment was possible by designing and building an MR compatible gas administrator and ventilator dedicated to small animals, SAGAS (Small Animal Gas Administration System). Its complete hardware and software description is presented in the same chapter.

Hyperpolarized 3Helium (HP 3He) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has provided considerable insights into the anatomical structures and localized physiological phenomenon involved in pulmonary ventilation. The increasing mortality rates of pulmonary diseases such as COPD, gives rise to the need for sensitive and regional assessments of early disease conditions in attempts to decrease mortality and improve lifestyles. Evaluation of the HP 3He MRI diffusion weighted measurements of lung microstructure, demonstrated a statistically significant relationship between microstructure expansion and degree of lung inflation at the time of imaging. The ability of HP 3He MRI to assess regional ventilation was validated against air volume change estimates of ventilation attainable via conventional MDCT in a cohort of 8 normal never smokers. Great correlations and slope were observed between the functional estimates, with similar gravitationally dependent-nondependent gradients throughout. A small but significant preferential helium distribution was observed in the nondependent regions, most likely due to gas density differences between air and helium. Further validation of HP 3He MRI's ability to assess regional ventilation, was carried via quantitative and qualitative assessments against xenon-enhanced MDCT (normal = 4, COPD = 2). The MRI based estimates were found to be insensitive to slow and fast ventilating regions, while superior in exhibiting ventilation defects. Similar gravitationally dependent - nondependent gradients were observed throughout, along with a homogenous distribution of the exogenous contrast agents. Coefficient of variation (COV) values followed similar trends in the normal subjects, while only one COPD subject demonstrated an increase from the normal population baseline. Acquisition differences including single vs. multi-breath and z-axis coverage could attribute to the quantitative differences observed. Evaluation of the density dependent distribution patterns of helium in a normal airway model via dynamic HP 3He MRI and computational fluid dynamics, demonstrated an increased preferential distribution in the nondependent airways, in agreement with the ventilation discrepancies previously observed. In combination with the developmental aspects of the presented research, we have validated the ability of HP 3He MRI to assess regional ventilation, via multiple quantitative assessments against conventional based and exogenously enhanced MDCT techniques and extracted the lung inflation level dependencies. Complimented with dynamic imaging and CFD simulations of helium distribution, these results provide insight into future considerations critical to the establishment of the technique as a surrogate to the ionizing radiation based modalities.

Dynamic nuclear polarization and dissolution of 13C-labeled metabolite allows dynamic imaging of metabolism in-vivo. However, the spatial and temporal resolutions of magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging are limited by the duration of free-induction decay acquisitions and the T1-based, non-recoverable polarization decay. This thesis describes the implementation of a spectral-spatial radiofrequency excitation pulse with a `flyback' echo-planar readout trajectory to dynamically image [1-13C]-pyruvate and [1-13C]-lactate in an interleaved manner. This technique excites a single resonance of either [1-13C]-pyruvate or [1-13C]-lactate and generates dynamic images with 5mm in-plane resolution. Metabolite dynamics extracted from the images and the corresponding non-localized spectroscopic data reveal similar kinetic rates upon fitting to a kinetic model. This demonstrates the feasibility of probing metabolism in heterogeneous tissues in-vivo with dynamic interleaved 13C MR imaging.

Dynamic nuclear polarization and dissolution of 13C-labeled metabolite allows dynamic imaging of metabolism in-vivo. However, the spatial and temporal resolutions of magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging are limited by the duration of free-induction decay acquisitions and the T1-based, non-recoverable polarization decay. This thesis describes the implementation of a spectral-spatial radiofrequency excitation pulse with a `flyback' echo-planar readout trajectory to dynamically image [1-13C]-pyruvate and [1-13C]-lactate in an interleaved manner. This technique excites a single resonance of either [1-13C]-pyruvate or [1-13C]-lactate and generates dynamic images with 5mm in-plane resolution. Metabolite dynamics extracted from the images and the corresponding non-localized spectroscopic data reveal similar kinetic rates upon fitting to a kinetic model. This demonstrates the feasibility of probing metabolism in heterogeneous tissues in-vivo with dynamic interleaved 13C MR imaging.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy has been extensively used to investigate numerous systems of interest, ranging from collections of molecules to living organisms. However, NMR suffers from one key drawback: an inherent lack of detection sensitivity, as compared to other common forms of spectroscopy. This is due to the minute nuclear magnetic moments and low nuclear spin polarization levels at thermal equilibrium (~10-5 to 10-6), and thus necessitates the use of relatively large sample volumes. One way to overcome this low detection sensitivity is to introduce a species with highly non-equilibrium nuclear spin polarization, such as `hyperpolarized' xenon-129. Hyperpolarized xenon can either be used as its own chemical sensor (due to its exquisitely sensitive chemical shift range), or the non-equilibrium polarization may be transferred from xenon to another molecule of interest (such as a protein or inclusion complex). Hyperpolarized xenon is produced through a process known as spin-exchange optical pumping (SEOP), where the angular momentum from resonant, circularly-polarized light is transferred to the electronic spins of an alkali-metal, and is subsequently transferred to the xenon nuclei through gas-phase collisions. While SEOP has been extensively characterized throughout the years, new experimental techniques and emerging technologies have considerably advanced the field in recent years, and may enable a new understanding of the underlying physics of the system. The first five chapters in this dissertation review background information and the principal motivations for this work. Chapter one reviews the basics of NMR, from the various components of the nuclear spin Hamiltonian and different spin-relaxation pathways to the reasons behind the low polarization of nuclear spins at thermal equilibrium and a few alternative methods to `boost' the NMR signal. Chapter two discusses the fundamental aspects of SEOP, including the electronic spin polarization of the alkali-metal, polarization transfer to the xenon nuclei, and different avenues for the spin polarization to be depleted. The third chapter covers the practical considerations of SEOP from the viewpoint of an experimentalist; namely, the experimental differences when using a variety of alkali metals and noble gases, as well as different SEOP apparatuses and experimental parameters. Chapter four details a variety of different light sources that may be used for SEOP; specifically, the use of laser diode arrays (LDAs) are reviewed, including LDAs that have been frequency-narrowed for more efficient light absorption by the alkali metal. The fifth background chapter covers a variety of magnetic resonance applications of hyperpolarized xenon, including molecular biosensors, specific and non-specific binding with proteins, materials studies, and in vivo applications. The sixth chapter is used as an overview of the dissertation research, which is presented in chapters seven through eleven. Chapter seven details the arrangement of the particular SEOP apparatus used in this research, as well as the experimental protocol for producing hyperpolarized xenon. The eighth chapter accounts the implementation and characterization of the first frequency-narrowed LDA used in this research, as well as an equal comparison to a traditional broadband LDA. Chapter nine introduces the use of in situ low-field NMR polarimetry, which was used to distinguish an anomalous dependence of the optimal OP cell temperature on the in-cell xenon density; the low-field set-up is also used to examine the build-up of nuclear spin polarization in the OP cell as it occurs. The tenth chapter covers the use of high power, frequency-narrowed light sources that are spectrally tunable independent of laser power; this allows for the study of changes to the optimal spectral offset as a function of in-cell xenon density, OP cell temperature, and laser power. Xenon polarization build-up curves are also studied to determine if the spectral offset of the laser affects the nuclear spin polarization dynamics within the OP cell. Finally, chapter eleven accounts the use of high power, broadband LDAs to perform SEOP in which cesium is used as the alkali metal; these results demonstrate (for the first time) that the xenon polarization generated by cesium optical pumping can surpass that of rubidium OP under conditions of high laser flux and elevated in-cell xenon densities.

Les cryptophanes constituent une famille de conteneurs moléculaires, caractérisés par leur cavité interne lipophile. La capacité des cryptophanes à encapsuler du xénon hyperpolarisé a ouvert une grande opportunité de développer des traceurs d’IRM moléculaires à base de 129-Xe. Un grand nombre de biocapteurs 129-Xe-cryptophane ont été développés pour cibler divers événements biologiques. Bien que ce concept soit accrocheur, de nombreux défis ont été rencontrés, en particulier dans l’élaboration de dérivés de cryptophane solubles dans l’eau et fonctionnalisables facilement. Cette thèse vise donc à développer une nouvelle approche simple pour synthétiser des capteurs de cryptophane solubles dans l’eau. Ces cages sont basées sur des dérivés de cryptophane [223] portant une fonction acide carboxylique centrale permettant de greffer de manière sélective une unité de détection et sur six précurseurs solubles dans l’eau sur les deux rebords du CTB. Le greffage de différents bras de détection a été réalisé en une seule étape, suivie d’une simple déprotection pour offrir les capteurs de cryptophane solubles dans l’eau. Ces capteurs ont été caractérisés par spectroscopie RMN 129-Xe pour évaluer leurs propriétés de liaison et leur réactivité. Un autre aspect de ces dérivés est leur capacité à subir un phénomène d’self-encapsulation dépendant de solvants, caractérisé par l’inclusion de la fonctionnalité centrale greffée sur le lieur propélendioxy vers la cavité interne des cryptophanes en l’absence d’invité. L’investigation de «l’auto-encapsulation» a été évaluée par spectroscopie RMN 1H et IR qui a révélé certains signaux caractéristiques correspondant à ce processus. L'effet sur les propriétés chiroptiques globales a également été étudié par spectroscopie polarimétrique, VCD et ECD. / Cryptophanes are a family of molecular containers, characterized by their lipophilic internal cavity. The ability of cryptophanes to encapsulate hyperpolarized xenon has opened a great opportunity to develop highly sensitive 129-Xe-based MRI molecular tracers. A large number of 129-Xe-cryptophane biosensors have been developed for targeting various biological events. Although this concept is catchy, many challenges have been encountered, specifically in the elaboration of water soluble and easy functionalizable cryptophane derivatives. The work presented in this thesis aims at developing a new straightforward approach to synthesize water soluble cryptophane sensors. These cages are based on cryptophane-[223] derivatives that bear a central carboxylic acid function to selectively graft a sensing unit, and six water soluble precursors on the cryptophanes’ rims. Using these platforms, three different water soluble sensors have been elaborated. These sensors have been characterized by 129Xe NMR spectroscopy to assess their binding properties and responsiveness. An additional aspect of these derivatives is their ability to undergo a solvent-dependent “self-encapsulation” phenomenon. This is characterized by the inclusion of the central functionality grafted on the propelendioxy linker towards the inner cavity of cryptophanes. This phenomenon has been clearly proved by 1H NMR and IR spectroscopy. The effect on the overall chiroptical properties was also investigated by polarimetry, VCD and ECD spectroscopy.

The present Book of Abstracts includes most of the contributions to the International Symposium XeMAT 2015, Xenon/hyperpolarized noble gases in magnetic resonance. This symposium took place from September 13-17, 2015 in Dresden in the new chemistry building of TU Dresden and covered all aspects of the use of xenon and hyperpolarized gases in magnetic resonance. This included for example materials science, biosensing, imaging, and molecular bioimaging as well as all aspects of gas hyperpolarization. The conference program included 15 invited lectures, 14 contributed talks as well as more than 20 posters.

Dissolution dynamic nuclear polarisation is an emerging clinical technique which enables the metabolism of hyperpolarised 13C-labelled molecules to be dynamically and non- invasively imaged in tissue. The first molecule to gain clinical approval is [1-13C]pyruvate, the conversion of which to [1-13C]lactate has been shown to detect early treatment re- sponse in cancers and correlate with tumour grade. As the technique has recently been translated into humans, accurate and reliable quantitative methods are required in order to detect, analyse and compare regions of altered metabolism in patients. Furthermore, there is a requirement to understand the biological processes which govern lactate pro- duction in tumours in order to draw reliable conclusions from this data. This work begins with a comprehensive analysis of the quantitative methods which have previously been applied to hyperpolarised 13C data and compares these to some novel approaches. The most appropriate kinetic model to apply to hyperpolarised data is determined and some simple, robust quantitative metrics are identified which are suitable for clinical use. A means of automatically segmenting 5D hyperpolarised imaging data using a fuzzy Markov random field approach is presented in order to reliably identify regions of abnormal metabolic activity. The utility of the algorithm is demonstrated on both in silico and animal data. To gain insight into the processes driving lactate metabolism, a mathematical model is developed which is capable of simulating tumour growth and treatment response under a range of metabolic and tissue conditions, focusing on the interaction between tumour and stroma. Finally, hyperpolarised 13C-pyruvate imaging data from the first human subjects to be imaged in Cambridge is analysed. The ability to detect and quantify lactate production in patients is demonstrated through application of the methods derived in earlier chapters. The mathematical approaches presented in this work have the potential to inform both the analysis and interpretation of clinical hyperpolarised 13C imaging data and to aid in the clinical translation of this technique.

Polarized helium-3 is used as a contrast agent for lungs magnetic resonance imaging that has recently reached the pre-clinical applications. One method to hyperpolarize 3He is the metastability exchange optical pumping (MEOP). Optical pumping is performed in standard conditions at low pressure (~ 1 mbar) and low magnetic field (~ 1 Gauss). In this work, the complete update of a low field polarizer dedicated to small animal lungs imaging is presented. The implementation of a new 10 W laser, new peristaltic compressor and others components resulted in a production of 3-4 scc/min for a polarization between 30 to 40%. Images of rat lungs made with better resolution and a new dynamic radial sequence are presented as a validation of the system. Since few years, MEOP has also been studied at higher pressures and higher magnetic fields in small sealed cells. It showed that, thanks to hyperfine decoupling effect induced by high magnetic field, it was also possible to efficiently polarize at higher pressure (67 mbar). Experiments done at 4.7 and 1.5 T are reported in this work. The first ones show a benefic (higher polarization values) and a negative effect (lower production rates) of the magnetic field. The seconds highlight the advantage of using an annular beam shape of the laser that matches the distribution of 23S state atoms at higher pressure. Nuclear polarization values of 66.4% at 32 mbar and 31% at 267 mbar were obtained in 20 mL sealed cells and a 10 times increase in the production rate compare to best standard conditions. These promising results were the first motivation for building a high-field polarizer working inside MRI scanner in hospital. The design and the construction of such a polarizer are described in detail in the last part of the dissertation. The polarizer produces hyperpolarize 3He at 30-40% with a 4 times higher flow than the low field polarizer (10-15 scc/min). The first good quality human lungs images made in Poland with healthy volunteers are the main result of this work.