Les tumeurs cortico-surrénaliennes bénignes et malignes sont associées à une morbidité élevée résultant de l’hypersécrétion des hormones cortico-surrénaliennes, retrouvée chez près de 60% des patients. Au delà des perturbations endocrines, les carcinomes cortico-surrénaliens (CCS) sont des tumeurs de mauvais pronostic avec 16 à 38% de survie à 5 ans. Cette agressivité résulte à la fois de la présence de métastases chez de nombreux patients, au moment du diagnostic (30 à 40% des cas) et de l’absence d’approches thérapeutiques, au delà de la résection chirurgicale de la tumeur primaire. Au début de ma thèse, les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans le développement des tumeurs bénignes et malignes de la cortico-surrénale, étaient largement méconnus. L’activation anormale de la voie de signalisation Wnt/ßcaténine dans 48% des tumeurs bénignes et 37% des tumeurs malignes, suggérait que cette voie pouvait, comme dans d’autres tissus, participer au développement tumoral dans la cortico-surrénale. Afin de confirmer cette hypothèse, nous avons développé et caractérisé un modèle de souris transgéniques dans lesquelles la ßcaténine est constitutivement activée, spécifiquement dans le cortex surrénalien (souris ∆Cat). Grâce à ces souris, nous avons démontré pour la première fois que la ßcaténine agit comme un oncogène dans la cortico-surrénale, mais que son activation constitutive ne suffit pas à déclencher systématiquement le développement de tumeurs malignes. Chez plus de 90% des patients, la formation des CCS est associée à la surexpression du facteur de croissance IGF2. Grâce à des modèles de souris transgéniques qui surexpriment Igf2, nous avons pu montrer que cette surexpression n’a que peu d’effet sur l’initiation ou la progression tumorale, suggérant que d’autres altérations sont requises pour favoriser la transition maligne. Des résultats préliminaires encourageants suggèrent que la surexpression de l’histone méthyl-transférase EZH2 et les altérations épigénétiques résultantes, pourraient être la clé du développement des CCS. Parallèlement, nous avons montré que l’activation constitutive de la ßcaténine conduit au développement d’un hyperaldostéronisme primaire chez les souris ∆Cat, suggérant que l’activation de la voie Wnt/ßcaténine pourrait participer à la formation d’adénomes surrénaliens producteurs d’aldostérone (APA) chez les patients. Effectivement, nous avons mis en évidence que l’activation constitutive de la ßcaténine est l’altération moléculaire la plus fréquente dans les APA, avec une prévalence de 68%. Des analyses in vitro m’ont permis de montrer que la ßcaténine stimule la production d’aldostérone en contrôlant directement et indirectement l’expression de deux enzymes clés de la synthèse d’aldostérone – CYP21 et CYP11B2 – et du récepteur à l’angiotensine II (le sécrétagogue naturel de l’aldostérone), AT1R. Nous avons par ailleurs montré que la production excessive d’aldostérone chez les souris ∆Cat, pouvait être maîtrisée par un régime enrichi en quercétine, un inhibiteur naturel de l’activité transcriptionnelle de la ßcaténine. L’ensemble de ces résultats démontre l’importance de la voie Wnt/ßcaténine dans la tumorigenèse surrénalienne et dans l’hypersécrétion d’aldostérone ce qui fait d’elle une nouvelle cible thérapeutique potentielle. / Benign and malignant adrenocortical tumours are associated with a high morbidity caused by the hypersecretion of adrenocortical hormones found in approximately 60% of patients. Moreover, adrenocortical carcinomas (ACC) have poor prognosis with a 5 years survival rate of 16 to 38%. This aggressiveness results from both the presence of metastases at diagnosis in most patients (30 to 40% of cases) and the absence of therapeutic approaches apart from surgical resection of primary tumours. At the start of my thesis, the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of benign and malignant adrenocortical tumours were largely unknown. Abnormal activation of the Wnt/ßcatenin pathway found in 48% of benign tumours and 37% of malignant tumours suggests that as in other tissues, this pathway could participate in tumour development in the adrenal cortex. To confirm this hypothesis, we developed and characterized a transgenic mouse model with constitutive activation of ßcatenin, specifically in the adrenal cortex (∆Cat mice). With this model, we demonstrated for the first time that ßcatenin acted as an adrenocortical oncogene but that this activation was insufficient to systematically induce the development of adrenocortical carcinomas. In almost 90% of patients, CCS formation is associated with the overexpression of the growth factor IGF2. However, the development of a model of Igf2 overexpression in transgenic mice, allowed us to demonstrate that this overexpression could not initiate tumour formation and that it had a mild effect on tumour progression. This suggested that other alterations were necessary for malignant progression. Our encouraging preliminary results suggest that upregulation of the histone methyltransferase EZH2 and the resulting epigenetic defects could be the cause of ACC development. In parallel, we demonstrated that constitutive ßcatenin activation induced primary hyperaldosteronism development in ∆Cat mice suggesting that aberrant activation of the Wnt pathway could be involved in formation of aldosterone-producing adenomas (APA) in patients. Indeed, we showed that constitutive activation of ßcatenin was the most frequent molecular alteration in APA with a prevalence of 68%. In vitro analysis allowed us to demonstrate that ßcatenin stimulates aldosterone production by controlling directly and indirectly the expression of two key enzymes of aldosterone synthesis –CYP21 and CYP11B2- and of the angiotensin II receptor, AT1R. Furthermore, we showed that excessive aldosterone production in ∆Cat mice could be controlled by a diet enriched in quercetin, a natural inhibitor of the transcriptional activity of ßcatenin. Altogether these results demonstrate the essential role of the Wnt/ßcatenin pathway in adrenocortical tumorigenesis and aldosterone secretion. Consequently, this pathway could be a new potential therapeutic target for the treatment of most adrenal tumours.

Biotecnologias reprodutivas como a produção in vitro de embriões e a transferência de núcleo apresentam grande potencial de aplicação na medicina veterinária seja para a correção de infertilidades, para o aumento na eficiência da produção animal ou mesmo para um melhor entendimento sobre os mecanismos envolvidos no desenvolvimento embrionário inicial. Porém, manipulações in vitro de gametas ou embriões levam a alterações na regulação epigenética, podendo causar altas taxas de anormalidades no desenvolvimento e no nascimento de indivíduos derivados. A geração de um modelo de indução da pluripotência in vitro, ou seja, a geração de células iPS (do inglês induced pluripotent stem cells) possibilitou estudar o processo de reprogramação in vitro de maneira robusta e precisa. Os genes OCT4 e SOX2 são fundamentais no processo de aquisição e manutenção da pluripotência celular, e recentemente foi reportado que a ação destes dois fatores exerce grande influência sobre a regulação de alguns genes imprinted, em especial, no locus H19/IGF2, sabidamente importantes para o desenvolvimento normal do embrião e de sua placenta. Este estudo propõe a geração de um modelo experimental in vitro onde os fatores em questão sejam estudados, juntos ou em combinação, quanto à sua influência na regulação do imprinting genômico. Para tal, três linhagens de fibroblastos fetais bovinos (bFF1, bFF2 e bFF3) foram transduzidas com vetores lentivirais contendo cDNAs de OCT4 ou SOX2 humanos. Os fibroblastos foram analisados através de citometria e as células positivas foram separadas e recuperadas (sorted). Os fibroblastos expressando OCT4, SOX2, ambos (OCT4 + SOX2), nenhum (controle) juntamente com um controle recuperado (não sorted) não transgênico (total de cinco tratamentos) foram investigados quanto à expressão de genes relacionados à pluripotência e expressão de genes imprinted, bem como a manutenção dos padrões de metilação do DNA no locus H19/IGF2. Além disso, estas células foram submetidas à reprogramação in vitro e produção de células iPS. A indução à pluripotência foi realizada através da transdução dos fibroblastos com o vetor policistrônico contendo o cDNAs murino ou humano dos fatores de transcrição OCT4, SOX2, c-MYC e KLF4 (OSMK, vetor STEMCCA). Os resultados da análise de fluorescência por citometria de fluxo foram, em média, de 40,4% para OCT4, 6,1% para SOX2 e 0,63% para OCT4 + SOX2. A bFF1 foi a única linhagem a apresentar uma recuperação pós-sorting, o que possibilitou sua utilização para a indução da pluripotência. De maneira interessante, as células que não passaram pela citometria geraram colónias de células iPS, enquanto que os demais grupos não. A quantificação de transcritos por qRT-PCR mostrou que a expressão de OCT4 e de SOX2 estava aumentada nos respectivos grupos, a expressão do gene H19 mostrou-se aumentada no grupo controle que passou pelo procedimento de sorting e a expressão do gene imprinted IGF2R não variou entre os grupos. Já a análise preliminar da manutenção do padrão de metilação de DNA na DMR do locus H19/IGF2 mostrou que o grupo controle sorted apresentou uma leve diferença no padrão de metilação quando comparada aos outros grupos. Neste estudo, portanto, o procedimento de separação e recuperação celular por citometria de fluxo celular, aliado ao elevado número de repiques celulares durante o cultivo prolongado pode ter levado a um efeito prejudicial sobre a eficiência de reprogramação in vitro / Reproductive biotechniques such as in vitro embryo production and somatic cell nuclear transfer may greatly contribute for fertility improvements, to enhance animal production or else to contribute to a better understanding of the underlying mechanism involved during initial embryonic development. However, in vitro manipulation of gametes or embryos may lead to possible disruptions on epigenetic regulation, causing high developmental abnormalities and decreased healthy calves born at term. The generation of induced pluripotency models (induced pluripotent stem cells, or iPS) made it possible to study the process of in vitro reprogramming in a more solid and precise manner. OCT4 and SOX2 are fundamental genes for the acquisition and maintenance process of cellular pluripotency. Recently, it has been reported that both factors may have a huge influence on the regulation of some imprinted genes, specially at locus H19/IGF2, known to be important for the normal development of embryo and placenta. Therefore, this study aimed to generate an in vitro experimental model where the above transcription factors will be studied together or separately regarding their influence on genomic imprinting regulation. For that, three bovine fetal fibroblasts cell lines (bFF1, bFF2 and bFF3) were transduced with lentiviral vectors containing human OCT4 or SOX2 cDNAs. The fibroblasts were analyzed trough cell cytometry and positive cells were sorted. Fibroblasts expressing OCT4, SOX2, both (OCT4+SOX2), none (control) together with a non-sorted and non-transgenic control (five treatments) were investigated regarding pluripotency and imprinted gene expression, as well maintenance of DNA methylation patterns at H19/IGF2 locus. Further, these cells were also submitted to in vitro induced reprogramming and production of iPS cell colonies. Induction into pluripotency was realized by transducing fibroblasts with polycistronic excisable vector containing the murine or human cDNA of OCT4, SOX2, c-MYC and KLF4 transcription factors (OSMK, STEMCCA vector). The results of fluorescence analysis by flow cytometry were, on average, 40.4% for OCT4, 6.1% for SOX2 and 0,63% for OCT4+SOX2 groups. bFF1 was the only lineage presenting a post-sorting recovery that enabled its use for pluripotency induction. Interestingly, non-sorted cells generated biPS colonies whereas sorted cells (control non transgenic, OCT4, SOX2 and OCT4+SOX2 expressing cells) did not generate biPS cells. The transcript quantification by qRT-PCR showed that OCT4 and SOX2 expression were increased in the respective groups, the expression of H19 gene was increased in the control sorted group and IGF2R expression was not different between groups. Preliminary results of imprinting pattern methylation at H19/IGF2 locus showed that sorted group was slightly different from others. In this study, therefore, analysis and sorting procedure by flow citometry, together with an extended period in culture may have lead to a detrimental effect on in vitro reprogramming efficiency

ARAUJO, F. M. Ocorrência Familial e Associação de Polimorfismos dos Genes H19 e IGF2 com as Síndromes Hipertensivas Gestacionais. 2007. 118f. Disertação (Mestrado) Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 2007. As síndromes hipertensivas gestacionais [Pré-eclâmpsia/eclâmpsia (PE/E), hipertensão gestacional (HG) e hipertensão arterial crônica (HAC)] estão entre as maiores causas de morte materna e fetal. A PE é a mais prevalente dessas síndromes e o papel dos fatores genéticos na sua etiologia é bem aceito, embora o padrão de herança seja ainda assunto para debate. Os genes H19 e IGF2 sofrem imprinting (marcação) genômico e estão envolvidos na formação placentária e no desenvolvimento fetal. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi a pesquisa de ocorrência familial e da associação com os polimorfismos H19/RsaI e do IGF2/ApaI das síndromes hipertensivas gestacionais e do peso do recém-nascido. Todas as pacientes do estudo foram atendidas no Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto da Universidade de São Paulo e o projeto foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética deste hospital e pela Comissão Nacional de Ética em Pesquisa. Para a condução do estudo familial foram selecionadas 226 mulheres (75 apresentavam PE, 49 com HG e 102 do grupo controle). Os dados foram analisados pelos Testes Exato de Fisher e do Qui-quadrado, resultando em uma maior freqüência estatisticamente significativa (p <0,05) de parentes de primeiro-grau com PE/E entre o grupo de PE/E comparado aos outros grupos. Não foi observada influência da cor da pele na distribuição entre os grupos de pacientes. Para a pesquisa de polimorfismos de comprimento de fragmento de restrição H19/RsaI (alelos A e B) e IGF2/ApaI (alelos A e G) através da reação em cadeia da polimerase , foi extraído DNA de sangue periférico de 236 pacientes (55 apresentavam PE, 40 com HG, 34 com HAC e 107 do grupo controle). Os resultados, analisados através dos Testes do Qui-quadrado e G, não mostraram associação estatisticamente significativa entre os polimorfismos e as síndromes hipertensivas gestacionais ou HAC. Houve uma maior freqüência do alelo G na população estudada. Foi observado que em torno de 80% das pacientes dos quatro grupos estudados apresentou pelo menos uma cópia do alelo B e uma do alelo G, concomitantemente. A associação do peso do recém-nascido com os polimorfismos foi analisada utilizando-se os Testes Kolmogorov-Smirnov (a P<0,05) e os Não-paramétricos de Kruskal-Wallis (a P<0,05), não tendo sido evidenciadas diferenças estatisticamente significativas. No grupo da PE houve uma diminuição estatisticamente significativa do peso dos recém-nascidos quando não havia correção para a idade gestacional. Embora não tenha sido evidenciada correlação entre os polimorfismos e os fenótipos estudados, trabalhos futuros com um número amostral maior serão importantes para auxiliar no entendimento do envolvimento de fatores epigenéticos nas síndromes hipertensivas gestacionais e fornecer indícios para a prevenção, o tratamento e o aconselhamento genético. / ARAUJO, F. M. Familial Occurrence and H19 and IGF2 Polymorphism Association with Gestational Hypertensive Disorders. 2007. 118p. Dissertation (Master\'s degree) - University of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 2007. Gestational hypertensive disorders [preeclampsia/eclampsia (PE/E), gestational hypertension (GH) and chronic hypertension (CH)] are among the largest causes of maternal and fetal death. PE is the more prevalent of those syndromes and the role of the genetic factors in its etiology is well accepted, although the pattern of inheritance is still subject for debate. The imprinted genes H19 and IGF2 are involved in the placental formation and in the fetal development. The objective of the present study was to verify the familial occurrence of these disorders and the H19/RsaI and IGF2/ApaI polymorphism association with gestational hypertensive disorders and the weight of the newborn. All patients of the study were referred to the Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, and the project was approved by the Hospital Ethic Committee and the National Commission of Ethics in Research. For the familial study, 226 women were selected (75 presented PE/E, 49 with GH and 102 from the control group). The data were analyzed by Exact of Fisher and Qui-square tests, and the frequency of families with at least one female first-degree relative (mothers and/or sisters) with PE/E was higher among the PE/E group compared to the other groups, and it was statistically significant (P<0.05). There was no statistically significant influence of the \"skin color\". Blood samples of 236 pregnant women (55 with PE/E, 40 with GH, 34 with CH and 107 from the control group) were obtained for DNA extraction, and PCR. Genotyping was carried out by enzymatic digestion with ApaI (IGF2) and RsaI (H19). The statistical analyses were performed by Qui-square and G tests. The genotypes were not significantly associated with the different groups. A higher frequency of the G allele (IGF2) was observed. Around 80% of the patients presented at least one copy of the allele B (H19) and G (IGF2), concomitantly. The association of the weight of the newborn with the polymorphisms was analyzed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (P <0.05) and the No-parametric Test of Kruskal-Wallis (P <0.05) tests, and statistically significant differences were not evidenced. In the group of the PE/E there was a statistically significant decrease of the weight of the newborn when the correction for the gestational age was not carried out. Although correlation has not been evidenced between the polymorphisms and the phenotypes, future studies with a higher number of patients and other imprinted genes will be important to elucidate the involvement of epigenetic factors for the prevention, treatment and genetic counseling of the gestational hypertensive disorders

L'expression du gène Igf2, qui est soumis à l'empreinte génomique parentale chez les mammifères, est hautement régulée au cours du développement embryonnaire et de la période périnatale grâce à divers mécanismes transcriptionnels et post-transcriptionnels. Ces mécanismes mettent à contribution de longs ARN non codants produits au sein même du locus, dont le plus connu est l'ARN H19. En utilisant une approche de complémentation génétique par un transgène H19 dans myoblastes H19 KO de souris, nous démontrons l'existence de plusieurs nouveaux promoteurs d'Igf2. L'un de ces promoteurs, qui est conservé chez l'homme, peut être activé par un ARN ectopique antisens d'H19 (lncARN 91H) en dépit d'une méthylation complète de la région de contrôle empreinte située en cis sur le même allèle. Nous montrons également que les lncARN 91H présentent une certaine spécificité tissulaire et que leur transcription peut être initiée à partir des séquences conservées CS4, CS5 et CS9 situées en aval du gène H19. Quant à l'ARN H19, qui est l'ARN non codant majeur du locus, il semble pouvoir réguler ses transcrits antisens dans les myoblastes H19 KO complémentés par le transgène H19, mais surtout il participe activement à la régulation post-transcriptionnelle du gène Igf2 chez la souris. Nous observons en effet qu'il favorise la coupure endoribonucléolytique de l'ARN Igf2 par un mécanisme qui reste à découvrir. Enfin, nous mettons en évidence l'existence d'un l'arrêt de l'élongation de la transcription du gène d'Igf2, pour lequel nous proposons un modèle de régulation faisant intervenir un autre long ARN non codant du locus: le lncARN PIHit. Au-delà des mécanismes qui restent à explorer, nos résultats renforcent l'idée que la structure tridimensionnelle de la chromatine participe à la régulation de l'expression des gènes chez les mammifères. / In mammals, the expression of the Igf2 gene, which is subject to parental genomic imprinting, is tightly regulated during embryonic development and the perinatal period through several transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms. These mechanisms are involving long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) produced within the locus; among them the best known is probably the H19 RNA. Using a genetic complementation assay consisting in transfections of an H19 transgene into H19 KO myoblasts, we discovered several novel Igf2 promoters in the mouse. One of these promoters, that is conserved in the human, can be activated by ectopic H19 antisens RNAs (91H lncRNAs) despite a complete methylation of the Imprinting-Control Region located in cis on the same allele. We also show that the 91H lncRNAs possess some tissue-specific features and that their transcription can be initiated from the CS4, CS5 and CS9 conserved sequences located downstream of the H19 gene. On the other hand, the H19 RNA, that is the major lncRNA of the locus, appears to regulate its antisense transcripts in H19 KO myoblasts complemented with the H19 transgene, but its major function seems to be in regulating post-transcriptionally the Igf2 gene expression. Indeed, we have observed that it favours the endoribonucleolytic cleavage of the Igf2 messenger RNAs through a mechanism that remains to be elucidated. Finally, we reveal the existence of a premature transcriptional elongation stop of the Igf2 gene, for which we propose a regulation model involving another lncRNA of the locus: the PIHit lncRNA. Beyond the mechanisms that remain to be explored, our results strengthen the idea that, in mammals, the three-dimensional organization of the chromatin is involved in regulating gene expression.

Les carcinomes cortico-surrénaliens (CCS) sont des tumeurs malignes rares de mauvais pronostic et pour lesquelles les options thérapeutiques efficaces sont inexistantes. Il est donc indispensable de comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans le développement des CCS, afin d’améliorer leur prise en charge. Les deux altérations les plus fréquentes dans les CCS sont une surexpression du facteur de croissance IGF2 et l'activation constitutive de la voie Wnt/β-caténine. Le laboratoire a mis en évidence le rôle oncogénique de la β-caténine à l'aide d'un modèle murin (souris ΔCat) présentant une activation constitutive de la β-caténine dans la cortico-surrénale. Toutefois, la faible pénétrance du phénotype malin suggère la nécessité d'autres altérations pour la progression tumorale. L’objectif initial de ma thèse était de tester le pouvoir oncogénique de IGF2, seul ou en association avec l’activation constitutive de la β-caténine. Les modèles de surexpression de Igf2 dans la cortico-surrénale nous ont permis de montrer que Igf2 n'initie pas le développement de tumeurs cortico-surrénaliennes. Dans un contexte d'activation de la β-caténine, la surexpression de Igf2 favorise le développement tumoral à des stades tardifs. Toutefois la formation de tumeurs malignes reste un évènement rare. Ces résultats suggèrent donc que la surexpression de Igf2 et l'activation de la β-caténine ne sont pas suffisantes dans notre modèle pour induire le développement de CCS. Une analyse rétrospective des données de transcriptome nous a permis de mettre en évidence une surexpression de l’oncogène putatif et histone méthyl-transférase EZH2, qui est associée à un mauvais pronostic. Mes travaux in vitro suggèrent que EZH2 est surexprimé en réponse à une surexpression des facteurs E2F et qu’il pourrait être impliqué dans le contrôle de la prolifération, de l'apoptose et de certaines caractéristiques tumorales des cellules cortico-surrénaliennes humaines H295R. Des inhibiteurs pharmacologiques étant disponibles, EZH2 pourrait constituer une cible thérapeutique intéressante pour le traitement des CCS. En parallèle de ces travaux, nous avons cherché à identifier les mécanismes impliqués dans la zonation du cortex surrénalien. Au cours du renouvellement tissulaire, les cellules acquièrent d’abord une identité glomérulée puis fasciculée. L'identité de la zone glomérulée repose en partie sur l'activité de la voie Wnt/β-caténine. Cette voie de signalisation induit l'expression de gènes essentiels à l'identité de cette zone et inhibe l'identité fasciculée. La différenciation fasciculée des cellules doit donc reposer en partie, sur l'inhibition de cette voie de signalisation. Nous avons donc émis l'hypothèse que la signalisation PKA, activée dans la zone fasciculée par la liaison de l'ACTH à son récepteur MC2R, s'oppose à l'activité de la β-caténine pour permettre la différenciation fasciculée. A l'aide d'approches pharmacologiques et génétiques, nous avons pu mettre en évidence que l'activation de la PKA inhibe la voie Wnt/β-caténine dans le cortex surrénalien et que ceci est à l'origine d'une perte de la zone glomérulée au profit d'une expansion de la fasciculée. L'effet de la PKA sur la voie Wnt résulte au moins en partie de l'inhibition de l'expression de Wnt4 en réponse à l'activation de la PKA. En effet une diminution d'expression de Wnt4 est observée en réponse à l'activation de la PKA dans la cortico-surrénale et l'invalidation de Wnt4 spécifiquement dans le cortex induit un phénotype proche de celui observé lors de l'activation de la PKA. Au delà des mécanismes moléculaires de la zonation, nous avons également montré que l’effet inhibiteur de la PKA sur la signalisation Wnt était capable de s’opposer aux effets oncogéniques de la β- caténine dans la cortico-surrénale. Ces observations pourraient s’avérer pertinentes, la voie de signalisation ACTH/PKA étant inhibée dans les CCS. / Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare tumour associated with poor prognosis and for which, efficient therapeutic approaches are not available. It is therefore essential to understand the molecular mechanisms involved in CCS development in order to improve their clinical management. The two most frequent alterations in ACC are overexpression of IGF2 and constitutive activation of β-catenin. Our lab has previously demonstrated the oncogenic activity of β-catenin in the adrenal cortex by developing a mouse model of constitutive β-catenin activation (ΔCat mice). However, the low malignant progression in ΔCat mice suggests that other alterations are necessary for acquisition of malignancy. The initial aim of my thesis was to test the oncogenic potential of IGF2 alone or associated with constitutive β-catenin activation. We showed that overexpression of Igf2 in the adrenal cortex does not trigger adrenal cortex tumourigenesis. In a context of constitutive β-catenin activation, overexpression of Igf2 promotes tumour development at later stages. However the formation of malignant tumours remains a rare event. These data suggest that the overexpression of Igf2 and constitutive activation of β-catenin are not sufficient to trigger malignant tumour progression. Retrospective analysis of available ACC transcriptome data highlighted overexpression of the putative oncogene and histone methyltransferase EZH2 in ACC, which was associated with poor prognosis. My in vitro studies suggest that EZH2 is overexpressed in response to overexpression of E2F transcription factors and that it could be involved in control of proliferation, apoptosis and oncogenic capacities of adrenocortical carcinoma cells H295R. Interestingly, the availability of pharmacologic inhibitors suggests that EZH2 could be a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of ACC. In parallel, we sought to identify the mechanisms involved in zonation of the adrenal cortex. During adrenal cortex renewal, cells first differentiate as glomerulosa before switching to fasciculata as they move within the cortex. Establishment of glomerulosa identity relies on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, which induces expression of genes involved in glomerulosa differentiation and inhibits fasciculata identity. These data suggest that β-catenin has to be inhibited in order to allow the lineage conversion from glomerulosa to fasciculata. We thus postulated that PKA signalling pathway, which is triggered by ACTH binding to its receptor MC2R in zona fasciculata, played a role in repressing Wnt/β-catenin signalling to allow fasciculata differentiation. Using pharmacologic and genetic models, we have shown that PKA inhibits β-catenin signalling, which leads to loss of zona glomerulosa and expansion of zona fasciculata. The inhibitor effect of PKA on β-catenin pathway could be the result of decreased expression of Wnt4. Indee, a decrease of Wnt4 expression is observed in response to PKA activation and inactivation of Wnt4 in the adrenal cortex phenocopies PKA activation. We have also shown that PKA inhibits oncogenic effects of β-catenin in the adrenal cortex. The observation of decreased ACTH/PKA signalling in ACC suggests that this inhibition could be relevant to human adrenal tumour development.

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La tumeur de Wilms (WT) est la tumeur du rein la plus fréquente chez l'enfant âgé de moins de 5 ans. Bien que la majorité des enfants avec WT soit aujourd'hui soignée, 10 à 15% rechutent. L'identification de nouveaux marqueurs pronostic au diagnostic est donc nécessaire. Nous avons centralisé le matériel biologique de toutes les WTs françaises inclus dans le protocole SIOP-2001. Le blastème, la composante histologique la plus agressive de ces tumeurs, a été caractérisé par une analyse qualitative (architecture et aspect cytologique, index mitotique et prolifératif) et quantitative (volume et pourcentage). En collaboration avec les équipes européennes du Renal Tumor Study Group nous avons caractérisé les anomalies structurales de la WT par Multiple Ligation Probe Amplification (MLPA). De plus, nous nous sommes focalisés sur la région 11p15, où le gène IGF2 est localisé, en analysant les anomalies structurales et de méthylation au niveau de différents loci (IGF2-DMR0, ICR1, ICR2, H19), par MLPA et par ASMM RTQ- PCR (TaqMan allele-specific methylated multiplex real-time quantitative PCR). Nous avons de plus étudié l'expression d'IGF2 par RT-QPCR. Une dernière partie de notre étude a porté sur la caractérisation de la réponse immune intratumorale par immunohistochimie (CD3, CD4, CD8, PD1, PDL1). En conclusion, nous avons identifié des potentiels marqueurs pronostiques concernant la prise en charge des WTs: volume et pourcentage de blastème, index mitotique et de prolifération, perte de méthylation d'IGF2-DMR0 et rapport CD4/CD8. Ce travail pourrait contribuer à la détermination d'une nouvelle classification bio-pathologique de la WT. / Wilms tumor (WT) is the most common tumor of the kidney in children aged under 5 years. Although the majority of children with WT survives, 10-15% relapse. The identification of new prognosis markers at diagnosis is necessary. We centralized the biological material of all French WTs included in the SIOP-2001 protocol. The blastema, the most aggressive histological component of these tumors, was characterized by qualitative (architectural and cytological aspect, proliferative and mitotic index) and quantitative analysis (amount and percentage). In collaboration with European teams Renal Tumor Study Group we characterized the structural abnormalities of the WT by Multiple Ligation Probe Amplification (MLPA). In addition, we focused on the 11p15 region, where the IGF2 gene is located, analyzing the structural abnormalities and methylation at different loci (IGF2-DMR0, ICR1, ICR2, H19) by MLPA and ASMM RTQ - PCR (TaqMan allele-specific methylated multiplex quantitative real-time PCR). We also studied the expression of IGF2 by RT-QPCR. A final part of our study focused on the characterization of intratumoral immune response by immunohistochemistry (CD3, CD4, CD8, PD1, PDL1). In conclusion, we identified potential prognostic markers for the management of WTs: volume and percentage of blastema, mitotic and proliferation index, loss of IGF2 methylation-DMR0 and CD4 / CD8 ratio. This could contribute to the determination of a new bio-pathological classification of WT.

<p>Genomic imprinting marks a subset of autosomal loci expressed in parent of origin-dependent monoallelic expression in a non-Mendelian fashion. To restore totipotency and to reset the imprint according to the sex of the individual, the mark must be erased during germline development. The imprinted <i>Igf2-H19</i> loci located distally on chromosome 7 in mouse and 11p15.5 in human, share common regulatory elements that regulate differential expression. Where the <i>H19 </i>is silenced when paternally inherited, the <i>Igf2</i> is silenced when maternally inherited. </p><p>The differentially methylated 5'-flank of <i>H19</i> gene, termed imprinting control region (ICR), shown to display a unique chromatin organisation harbours hypersensitive sites in linker regions flanked by positioned nucleosomes on the maternal allele. This unique chromatin conformation functions as a methylation-sensitive and unidirectional chromatin insulator, which later was found to depend on the chromatin insulator protein CTCF. </p><p>The <i>H19</i> ICR exhibits default-silencing functions in promoter-proximal positions. The maximal distance between the <i>H19</i> ICR and the promoter of the reporter gene required for this effect was 1.2 ± 0.3kb which can be compared to the 1.9 kb distance between the endogenous <i>H19 </i>ICR and <i>H19</i> promoter. Results suggest that the <i>H19</i> ICR adopts a chromatin conformation that must be separated by a minimal distance from pivotal <i>cis</i>-regulatory elements to avoid adverse effects on neighbouring promoters. </p><p>Poly(ADP-ribosy)lation represents a novel post-translational epigenetic mark that segregates with exclusively the maternal derived <i>H19</i> ICR and associated with factors that interact with the CTCF target sites. CTCF is itself poly(ADP-ribosy)lated and the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitor 3-aminobenzamide relieves the insulator function of the <i>H19</i> ICR. </p><p>Designed zinc finger proteins were applied to examine if epigenetic marks provided an obstacle for targeted activation and silencing. The zinc finger protein ZFP809 with activator/repressor domain able to efficiently activate/silence the <i>IGF2</i> target. Murine hybrid cell lines of human chromosome 11, demonstrated that the ZFP809 overcame the epigenetic marks that repressed maternal <i>IGF2</i> and paternal <i>H19</i> allele, respectively. Results suggested that imprinted genes are not normally exposed to strong <i>cis</i>-regulatory elements and that the designed ZFPs can be exploited to develop a therapeutic method for rectifying epigenetic lesions.</p>

<p>An overall coordination between the expressions of genes is required for the proper development of an individual. Although most genes are expressed from both the constituent alleles of the genome, a small subset of autosomal genes are preferentially expressed from only one of the parental alleles, a phenomenon known as genomic imprinting. </p><p>The imprinted <i>H19</i> and <i>Igf2</i> genes are considered paradigms of genomic imprinting as their monoallelic expression pattern is coordinated by a short stretch of sequence located upstream of <i>H19</i>, known as the imprinting control region (ICR). This region shows differential methylation, with hypermethylation specifically on the paternal allele. On the maternal allele this region acts as an insulator and harbours maternal specific hypersensitive sites. </p><p>The hypersensitive sites were identified as the result of association of the vertebrate insulator protein CTCF with the region. This association was investigated in both an <i>in vitro</i> episomal system and in an <i>in vivo</i> mouse model system by mutating the CTCF target sites at the <i>H19</i> ICR. The importance of CTCF for the insulator property of the region was confirmed in both instances. In the mouse model, the disruption of the binding was also observed to affect the methylation profile of the ICR, which ultimately resulted in the de-repression of the maternal <i>Igf2</i> allele.</p><p>The relevance of multiple CTCF target sites in higher vertebrates for the proper insulator function was investigated using another knock-in mouse model with mutation at a single CTCF target site in the <i>H19</i> ICR. The investigation confirmed the cooperation between the target sites for the establishment of a functional insulator on the maternal allele. Target sites in the ICR were also analysed for their differential binding affinity for the CTCF protein.</p><p>The utilisation of the CTCF target sites was examined in different human tumours and cell lines. Methylation analysis conveyed a lack of correlation between the loss of insulator function and methylation status of the ICR with the loss of imprinting (LOI) of <i>IGF2</i>. Investigations also identified a novel mechanism, which neutralised the chromatin insulator function of the <i>H19</i> ICR without affecting its chromatin conformation. This principle might also help in explaining the loss of <i>IGF2</i> imprinting observed in some instances.</p><p>In conclusion, this thesis confirms the importance of CTCF in the formation of an epigenetically regulated chromatin insulator at the ICR, which in turn controls the expression pattern of <i>H19</i> and <i>Igf2</i>. The studies also confirm the role of CTCF in the maintenance of the methylation profile of the region. Investigations into the loss of <i>IGF2 </i>imprinting in human cancer indicate the involvement of other novel mechanisms besides CTCF in the regulation of insulator function.</p>

Recent advances in genomics now allow for the identification of the genes and mutations that underlie the heritability of agronomically important traits in livestock. The corresponding genes are said to map to Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL), and the mutations referred to as Quantitative Trait Nucleotides (QTN). The most commonly used approach relies on positional cloning which typically proceeds in three steps: QTL mapping by linkage analysis, QTL fine-mapping by linkage disequilibrium or association analysis, and QTN identification combining haplotype analysis and functional assays. Knowledge of QTL and QTN provides insights into the genetic architecture of complex traits and physiology of production traits, and opens novel possibilities for enhanced selection referred to as Marker Assisted Selection (MAS). This thesis is devoted to QTN identification of a QTL that was previously mapped to pig chromosome 2 and fine-mapped to a 250 Kb segment encompassing the imprinted IGF2 gene. The QTL was shown to have a major post-natal effect on muscle mass and fat deposition, and to be subject to parental imprinting as only the padumnal chromosome affects the phenotype. To identify the QTN we have first generated 32 Kb and 56 Kb of finished porcine sequence encompassing the IGF2 and H19 genes, respectively. The corresponding sequences were annotated including definition of gene models, identification of interspersed repeats and determination of 97 sequence elements that are highly conserved between pig, human and mouse. We have then resequenced 28 Kb encompassing the IGF2 gene for 15 boar chromosomes for which the QTL genotype had been determined by progeny-testing or Marker Assisted Segregation Analysis (MASA). This revealed 258 polymorphisms of which only one (Int3-3072G>A) cosegregated perfectly with QTL genotype. The corresponding single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a G to A transition affecting one of the highly conserved sequence elements located just downstream of differentially methylated region 1 in intron 3. We have demonstrated that the Int3-3072 A allele associated with increased muscle mass is also associated with increased IGF2 mRNA levels in post-natal striated muscle (but not in pre-natal muscle nor in pre- and post-natal liver). However, the Int3-3072G>A SNP does not alter imprinting nor allele-specific methylation. Using a luciferase reporter assay, we then demonstrated that the Int3-3072 A allele reduces the cis activity of a silencer element, and using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), that it abrogates binding of a nuclear factor assumed to be a trans-acting silencing factor. Taken together both genetic and functional evidence strongly support the conclusion that the Int3-3072G>A SNP is the causative SNP. The thesis is concluded by a discussion that (i) highlights the factors that make domestic animals a unique resource for the molecular dissection of complex phenotypes, (ii) comments the Asian origin of the Int3-3072A allele associated with increased muscle mass, (iii) describes recent advances in characterizing the trans-acting silencing factor binding to the Int3-3072G allele, (iv) pinpoints statistical issues related to the detection of imprinted QTL, (v) reports on the utility of the Int3-3072G>A SNP for MAS applied to pig breeding, and (vi) makes projections on how latest progress in genome analysis will affect positional identification of QTN in the near future. Grâce aux progrès récents en génomique, il est maintenant possible didentifier les gènes et mutations qui sous-tendent lhéritabilité des caractères de production chez les animaux de rente. Ces gènes se localisent au niveau de Loci de Traits Quantitatifs (QTL), et les mutations correspondantes sont qualifiées de Nucléotides de Traits Quantitatifs (QTN). La démarche expérimentale la plus couramment utilisée est le clonage positionnel. Celui-ci comprend trois étapes: cartographie de QTL par analyses de liaison génétique, cartographie fine de QTL par études dassociation exploitant le déséquilibre de liaison, et identification de QTN par combinaison danalyses haplotypiques et fonctionnelles. Lidentification de QTL et QTN non seulement révèle larchitecture génétique des phénotypes complexes que sont les caractères de production, ainsi que les rouages moléculaires qui les sous-tendent, mais ouvre également des possibilités nouvelles de sélection plus performante dite Assistée par Marqueurs (MAS). Cette thèse est consacrée à lidentification dun QTN correspondant à un QTL dabord localisé sur le chromosome 2 du porc, et ensuite cartographié finement dans un segment chromosomique de 250 Kb comprenant le gène IGF2. Le QTL en question a un effet post-natal majeur sur la croissance musculaire et le dépôt graisseux. Il est soumis à lempreinte parentale, lallèle paternel étant le seul à influencer le phénotype. Afin didentifier le QTN, nous avons tout dabord généré 32 Kb et 56 Kb de séquences finies, comprenant respectivement les gènes IGF2 et H19. Les séquences correspondantes ont été annotées bioinformatiquement, y compris la définition de modèles gèniques, lidentification de séquences répétées dispersées, ainsi que de 97 éléments de séquence fortement conservés chez le porc, lhomme et la souris. Nous avons ensuite re-séquencé 28 Kb chevauchant le gène IGF2 pour 15 chromosomes dont le génotype au niveau du QTL fut préalablement déterminé par testage de descendance ou Ségrégation Assistée par Marqueurs. Cet exercice a révélé 258 polymorphismes dont un seulement (Int3-3072G>A) correspondait parfaitement aux génotypes QTL. Ce polymorphisme est une transition G à A affectant un des 97 éléments hautement conservés, situé juste en aval de la région différentiellement méthylée (DMR1) dans lintron 3. Nous avons ensuite démontré que lallèle Int3-3072 A, associé à une augmentation de la masse musculaire, est également associé à une augmentation des taux dARNm IGF2 dans le muscle strié post-natal (mais non dans le muscle strié pré-natal, ni dans le foie pré- et post-natal). Par contre, le polymorphisme Int3-3072G>A naffecte ni état dempreinte ni de méthylation allèle-spécifique du gène. Nous avons ensuite démontré à laide dun test rapporteur de type luciférase que lallèle Int3-3072 A réduit lactivité dun élément silenceur agissant en cis, et à laide dun test de type EMSA quil empêche la liaison dun facteur nucléaire. Conjointement, ces données génétiques et fonctionnelles démontrent que le polymorphisme Int3-3072G>A SNP correspond bien au QTN. Nous concluons la thèse par une discussion dans laquelle nous (i) démontrons pourquoi les animaux domestiques offrent des possibilités uniques pour la dissection moléculaire de phénotypes complexes, (ii) commentons lorigine asiatique de lallèle Int3-3072A associé à une augmentation du développement musculaire, (iii) décrivons les progrès récent dans lidentification du facteur nucléaire reconnaissant spécifiquement lallèle Int3-3072G, (iv) attirons lattention sur les artéfacts statistiques associés à la détection de QTL soumis à lempreinte, et (v) discutons limpact de nouvelles technologies génomiques sur le clonage positionnel de gènes.