Die Erkrankungen des atopischen Formenkreises sind durch eine hypererge Immunreaktion auf harmlose Umwelt-Antigene gekennzeichnet und umfassen u.a. die klinischen Bilder der allergischen Rhinokonjunktivitis, des allergischen Asthmas und der atopischen Dermatitis. Die Pathogenese atopischer Krankheiten ist zwar noch nicht hinreichend aufgeklärt, aber man schreibt der Regulation des IgE bei der Entstehung und Erhaltung dieser Krankheiten eine zentrale Rolle zu. Auf der Suche nach potentiellen anti-allergischen Therapeutika wurde in dieser Arbeit erstmalig der Einfluß von 1alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin-D3 (VD) und dem niedrigkalzämischen Derivat EB1089 in vitro auf die IgE-Produktion humaner B-Zellen gesunder Spender untersucht, die zuvor mit anti-CD40+IL-4 stimuliert wurden, wodurch der Isotypenklassenwechsel nativer B-Zellen nach IgE resultierte. Das Steroidhormon VD ist für die Kalziumhämostase essentiell, jedoch sind die immunregulatorischen Funktionen des VD noch relativ unerforscht. Die Experimente dieser Arbeit zeigen eine starke, dosisabhängige Hemmung der IgE-Produktion in diesem Modell, die spezifisch von VD und dem Derivat EB1089 vermittelt wird. Auch bei PBMC atopischer Spender konnte die basale IgE-Produktion mit VD dosisabhängig signifikant gehemmt werden. Eine mögliche Proliferationshemmung, die diese Wirkung erklären könnte, konnte ausgeschlossen werden. Die Messung der Produktion der anderen Immunglobulinklassen (Ig) IgA, IgG und IgM bestätigte, daß die Zellviabilität und die Ig-Produktion außer der von IgE durch VD und EB1089 in diesem Modell nur wenig beeinflußt wird. Diese Beobachtungen weisen auf eine selektive, spezifische Inhibition der IgE-Synthese durch das Molekül aus der Familie der Steroidhormone hin. Auf der Suche nach möglichen indirekten Mechanismen der IgE-Regulation, die die VD-vermittelte Inhibition der IgE-Synthese erklären könnten, wurde der Einfluß von VD auf die Expression der kostimulatorischen Faktoren der IgE-Produktion CD23 (Fc(-RII), CD54 (ICAM-1) und CD86 (B7.2) sowie auf die Sekretion der Zytokine, IL-6, sCD23 und IFN-gamma untersucht. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit deuteten jedoch nicht auf eine Beteiligung der genannten Faktoren an der Regulation der VD-vermittelten Hemmung der IgE-Produktion hin. Diese in vitro Arbeit stellt einen wichtigen Hinweis auf eine potentielle Nutzung von VD in der anti-allergischen Therapie dar, jedoch deutet die beobachtete Hemmung der IgE-Synthese von PBMC atopischer Spender darauf hin, daß auch in vivo die IgE-Synthese gehemmt werden kann. Es sind daher weitere Studien des Signalweges des VD auf molekularer Ebene, sowie in vivo Versuche notwendig, um zu klären, ob VD selbst oder ein möglichst nicht-kalzitropes VD-Derivat mit ausgeprägten immunologischen Eigenschaften für die anti-allergische Therapie geeignet ist. / Atopic diseases are characterized by a hyperergic immunoreaction towards harmless environmental antigens, expressed by the clinical phenotype of allergic rhinitis, allergic asthma and atopic dermatitis. Even though the pathogenesis of atopic diseases are not completely clear, the regulation of IgE plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of these disorders. In search of new potentially anti-allergic drugs, the effect of 1alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin-D3 (VD) and the low-calcemic synthetic analogue EB1089 was determined in anti-CD40+Il-4-mediated IgE-production by B-cells of healthy donors in vitro. The essential role of VD in calcium hemostasis is well understood, but the immunoregulatory functions of the hormone are still quite unclear. The present data show for the first time, that VD and the analogue EB1089 mediate a strong, dose-dependent inhibition of IgE-synthesis. In PBMC of atopic donors, the baseline IgE-production was also significantly inhibited by VD. Anti-CD40+IL-4-mediated proliferation of B-cells in the presence of VD was only modestly modulated, as well as the production of the other immunoglobulin-isotypes IgA, IgG and IgM. Taken together these data suggest a specific and selective inhibition of IgE-synthesis by VD and EB1089. In order to explore possible mechanisms of VD induced IgE-inibition, the expression of CD23 (Fc(-RII), CD54 (ICAM-1) and CD86 (B7.2) on anti-CD+IL-4 stimulated B-cells was determined as well as IL-6, sCD23 und IFN-gamma. However, none of these molecules were significantly modulated in the presence of VD. Taken together, these in vitro experiments suggest a potential role of VD as a new anti-allergic drug, which is underlined by the observed inhibition of IgE-production by PBMC in allergic donors.

CD23, the low affinity receptor for IgE, is expressed mainly on B cells and has been shown to regulate IgE production. Previously, recombinant mouse and human CD23 were constructed with a trimerizing isoleucine zipper motif attached in frame to the N-terminus of the entire extracellular CD23 (lz-ECCD23). The goal was to examine the role of the necessity of the CD23 stalk for binding IgE. Using PCR-based mutagenesis to delete the majority of the stalk, binding to IgE was lost. Further studies examined the effect of lz-ECCD23 in preventing IgE from binding FcεRI and therefore acting as a therapeutic agent. It was determined that the lz-ECCD23 construct was capable of doing this, albeit most effectively at 4°C rather than at physiological temperature. In addition, antibodies to the stalk region of CD23 were developed and assessed for their capacity to modulate IgE. Rabbit anti-CD23stalk (RAS) antibodies were found to inhibit IgE production in IL-4/antiCD40 stimulated B cells. The inhibition observed was dependent on the Fc portion of the antibody, implicating a role for FcγRIIb, an inhibitory receptor, in the IgE reduction. It was also shown that the addition of anti-stalk antibodies caused significant release of soluble CD23 (sCD23). Finally, I show that optimal IgE production was cell density dependent and was achieved through the addition of IL-21 and/or IL-10 to IL-4/antiCD40 stimulated B cells. While IgE production is inversely proportional to plated cell densities, it is directly correlated to increased cellular division, as determined by CFSE staining, and to increased cellular differentiation, as determined by FACS analysis for differentiation markers. This work is the first demonstration that IgE production in humans is dependent on cell density, that IL-21 affects all isotypes tested, and that maximal Ig production is found at lower cell densities, correlating with increased cell division. I also show for the first time that the increase in IgE observed after IL-10 addition to IL-4 and anti-CD40 stimulated cells correlates with increased cellular division. When IL-10 and IL-21 were added together, there was a synergistic increase in IgE, but interestingly, no further cell division was seen, suggesting an increase in differentiation.

Immunological stressors, in the form of clinical and sub-clinical disease are currently controlled using both prophylactic antibiotics in-feed, and therapeutic antibiotic treatment. Respiratory disease, primarily Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (App) infection, is recognised as a major factor causing reduced productivity in pigs. This thesis reports investigations into the use of novel immunomodulators in particular Interleukin 4 (IL-4) and Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) as alternatives to antibiotics to treat App infection. Immunological and molecular biological assays were used to investigate and accumulate data. An in vitro study undertaken to find potential anti-inflammatory substances, revealed that Interleukin 8 (IL-8) mRNA production stimulated by PMA or LPS in whole pigs' blood was suppressed by IL-4. IL-1ra also suppressed stimulated IL-8 mRNA production by heat killed App bacteria (KB) in vitro. An acute LPS challenge in pigs in vivo however, showed no variation in illness or weight loss between pigs treated prophylactically with anti-inflammatory substance (IL-4 and IL-1ra) and saline treated pigs. The use of plasmids as a delivery system for anti-inflammatory substance did not show promise since it did not enhance growth or prolong the expression of the substances in the pigs. However, in the chronic App challenge model IL-4 and IL-1ra administered prophylactically in vivo showed an ability to improve growth. The therapeutic administration of IL-4 and IL-1ra to App challenged pigs showed no difference in pigs' growth, regardless of the treatment or control administered. To conclude, IL-4 and IL-1ra showed promise when administered prophylactically and improved growth and abrogated disease under conditions of App challenge. However when IL-4 and IL-1ra where administered therapeutically they did not perform as well. Moreover these compounds have potential as a commercial application to reduce the growth reduction caused by disease such as App.

Bone metabolism is regulated by endocrine and paracrine signalling molecules influencing bone cells in the continuously remodelling bone tissue. These molecules include a variety of osteotropic stimulatory and inhibitory cytokines. Degradation of alveolar bone in periodontal disease is believed to be a result of local release of such osteotropic cytokines, although the relative importance of particular cytokines and their cellular origin is currently unknown. The aim of the present project was to study if, and how, pro-inflammatory cytokines in the interleukin-6 (IL-6) family of cytokines, and anti-inflammatory IL-4 and IL-13 type of cytokines, can affect osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption. Additionally, the objective was to study if gingival fibroblasts may influence alveolar bone resorption through secretion of IL-6 type cytokine release and if the secretion is regulated by pro-inflammatory as well as anti-inflammatory mediators such as IL-4 and IL-13. IL-6 in combination with its soluble receptor (sIL-6R) was found to stimulate mouse calvarial bone resorption. Similarly, two other IL-6 family members, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and oncostatin M (OSM) were found to stimulate bone resorption. The stimulatory effect on bone resorption induced by the three cytokines was associated with increased expression of receptor activator of NF- κB ligand (RANKL), a cytokine which is essential in osteoclast formation and activation through binding to receptor activator of NF- κB (RANK) on osteoclastic cells. The interaction between RANKL and RANK can be inhibited by binding of the decoy receptor osteoprotegerin (OPG) to RANKL, and the expression of OPG was also regulated by IL-6, LIF and OSM (Paper I). The two related cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 were found to inhibit osteoclastogenesis and mouse calvarial bone resorption by mechanisms involving a decreased RANKL/OPG ratio in osteoblasts and decreased RANK expression in osteoclastic cells. The results further demonstrated that IL-4 and IL-13 exert their effects on both osteoblasts and osteoclasts by a mechanism involving the transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) (Paper II). Constitutional expression of IL-6, LIF and another member of the IL-6 family of cytokines, IL-11, was demonstrated in human gingival fibroblasts. IL-6 type cytokine expression levels were found to be enhanced by IL-1β and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (Paper III), whereas IL-4 and IL-13 inhibited IL 11 and LIF release from gingival fibroblasts (Paper IV). In conclusion, IL 6 type cytokines were found to be stimulators and IL-4 and IL-13 inhibitors of bone resorption in vitro via mechanisms involving RANK/RANKL/OPG interactions. Additionally, gingival fibroblasts were able to secrete several cytokines in the IL-6 family. Secretion was further enhanced by pro-inflammatory mediators and inhibited by IL-4 and IL- 13. These findings support the view that resident cells may influence the pathogenesis of periodontal disease through osteotropic cytokine production.

B cells can be activated by T cell-dependent stimuli, such as CD40 ligation and cytokines, which induce extensive proliferation, class switch recombination and somatic hypermutation. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) can also induce B cell activation by mimicking T cell help through its main oncoprotein, latent membrane protein 1 (LMP-1). It is regulated by another EBV-encoded protein, EBV nuclear antigen 2 (EBNA-2), which is absent in Hodgkin and Burkitt lymphomas. We have studied LMP-1 induction by cytokines in vitro and shown that LMP-1 is induced through the transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT6) and a newly defined high-affinity STAT6-binding site. When IL-4 is added together with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or α-CD40 to B cells, it induces homotypic round and tight aggregates in vitro, whereas LPS alone does not induce such morphological changes. I describe here attempts to identify the molecules that regulate these responses. I have shown that the Rho GTPase Cdc42 controls the spreading of B cells, whereas two other molecules in the same family, Rac1 and Rac2, control homotypic adhesion. Further, I have shown by conditional deletion of Cdc42 in B cells that it is important in the humoral immune response.  Dock10 is a guanosine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) for Cdc42. It is expressed through all differentiation stages of B cell development. However, targeted deletion of Dock10 in B cells does not result in an aberrant phenotype. Furthermore, by studying conditional knockout mice for Dock10, Cdc42, Rac1 and Rac2, I have elucidated the mechanism of cytoskeletal changes during B cell activation, leading to adhesion and motility. My results may lead to a better understanding of normal B cell activation and of EBV infection, which is associated with many human tumours and may help to understand cancer development and progression in B cells. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Manuscript. Paper 3: Manuscript.</p>

In malaria endemic regions, resistance to malaria constitutes a critical selective pressureon genetic polymorphisms that regulate immune defense and inflammatory pathways.Differences in malaria susceptibility between sympatric ethnic groups have been described inMali. The Fulani are less susceptible to malaria compared to the neighboring group the Dogon,in spite of similar socio-economic and environmental conditions. Paper I is focused on IL-4-590 T/C polymorphism and correlation with levels of malariaspecific IgG, IgG (1-4) subclasses as well as malaria specific and total IgE level in the two ethnicgroups. Our data show that the Fulani individual carrying the IL-4-590 T allele found to havehigher parasite carriage rate and had higher levels of malaria-specific IgG4 and IgE compared tothe individual carrying the C allele. No such differences were seen within the Dogon.Paper II investigated 166 SNPs in the human host in individuals belonging to the Fulani and theDogon ethnic groups. These SNPs were correlated with total IgG against AMA-1, MSP-1, MSP-2 and CSP antigens as well as total IgE level. All antibody levels were higher in the Fulanicompared to the Dogon and strengthens previous finding that antibodies might play a role in theprotection seen in the Fulani. We identified higher frequencies of the protective blood group O.Several allelic differences between the two ethnic groups were found in CD36, IL-4, RTN3 andADCY9. Moreover several polymorphisms in SLC22A4, IRF1, IL5, LTA and TNF have beenfound to be correlated with anti-MSP antibody level; TLR6, IL3, TNF, and IL22 found to becorrelated with anti-MSP-2 antibody level in the Fulani. Such association was not seen in theDogon. In Paper III, the same individuals, as in paper II, were investigated with a focus on the FcγRIIapolymorphism and correlation with levels of anti-AMA-1, MSP-1, MSP-2, CSP specificantibodies as well as total IgE level. The genotype distribution and allele frequency weresignificantly different between the Fulani and the Dogon with the Fulani being HH, H allele- andthe Dogon RR, R allele carriers. A correlation between the HH genotype and the H allele andprotection against mild malaria was seen in the Fulani but not in the DogonTaken together our study has found significant genetic differences between the Fulani and theDogon Ethnic groups, which suggest that ethnicity should be taken into account in monitoring ofimmunological studies and vaccines trials in malaria endemic areas.

Immunological stressors, in the form of clinical and sub-clinical disease are currently controlled using both prophylactic antibiotics in-feed, and therapeutic antibiotic treatment. Respiratory disease, primarily Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (App) infection, is recognised as a major factor causing reduced productivity in pigs. This thesis reports investigations into the use of novel immunomodulators in particular Interleukin 4 (IL-4) and Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) as alternatives to antibiotics to treat App infection. Immunological and molecular biological assays were used to investigate and accumulate data. An in vitro study undertaken to find potential anti-inflammatory substances, revealed that Interleukin 8 (IL-8) mRNA production stimulated by PMA or LPS in whole pigs' blood was suppressed by IL-4. IL-1ra also suppressed stimulated IL-8 mRNA production by heat killed App bacteria (KB) in vitro. An acute LPS challenge in pigs in vivo however, showed no variation in illness or weight loss between pigs treated prophylactically with anti-inflammatory substance (IL-4 and IL-1ra) and saline treated pigs. The use of plasmids as a delivery system for anti-inflammatory substance did not show promise since it did not enhance growth or prolong the expression of the substances in the pigs. However, in the chronic App challenge model IL-4 and IL-1ra administered prophylactically in vivo showed an ability to improve growth. The therapeutic administration of IL-4 and IL-1ra to App challenged pigs showed no difference in pigs' growth, regardless of the treatment or control administered. To conclude, IL-4 and IL-1ra showed promise when administered prophylactically and improved growth and abrogated disease under conditions of App challenge. However when IL-4 and IL-1ra where administered therapeutically they did not perform as well. Moreover these compounds have potential as a commercial application to reduce the growth reduction caused by disease such as App.

Activated islet specific T cells are central to the destructive autoimmune response observed in type 1 diabetes (T1D). Not surprisingly, intense focus is placed on understanding how autoreactive T cell responses arise and contribute to disease pathology in the hope of using this information to develop novel therapeutic strategies for treatment of T1D. Here we investigate the mechanisms underlying defective c-Maf binding to the IL-4 promoter in T cells from diabetes prone mice and identify the mechanisms responsible for suppression of T cells by the inhibitory receptor Ly49A. It is not clear why development of protective Th2 cells is poor in T1D. c-Maf transactivates the IL-4 gene promoting Th2 cell development; therefore abnormalities in c-Maf may contribute to reduced IL-4 production by CD4 cells from nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. Here we demonstrate that, despite normal expression, c-Maf binds poorly to the IL-4 promoter (IL-4p) in NOD CD4 cells. Immunoblots demonstrate that c-Maf can be modified at lysine 33 by small ubiquitin-like modifier-1 (SUMO-1). Sumoylation is facilitated by direct interaction with the E2 conjugating enzyme Ubc9 and increases following T cell stimulation. In addition, c-Maf physically interacts with p65/RelA. This interaction is dependent on the DNA binding domain of c-Maf and phosphorylation of p65 at serine 536. In transfected cells, overexpression of SUMO-1 or p65 decreases c-Maf transactivation of IL-4p-driven luciferase reporter activity, reduces c-Maf binding to the IL-4p in chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays and enhances c-Maf localization into promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs) or nucleoli, respectively. Sumoylation of c-Maf and phosphorylation of p65 are increased in NOD CD4 cells compared to CD4 cells from diabetes-resistant B10.D2 mice, suggesting that increased c-Maf sumoylation and interaction with p65 contribute to immune deviation in T1D by reducing c-Maf access to and transactivation of the IL-4 gene. Islet specific CD4 cells expressing inhibitory receptors may be a useful therapeutic tool for treating T1D. Engagement of transgenic Ly49A inhibits CD4 cell activation and delays onset of T1D in mice. However, in vitro studies suggest the inhibitory effect of Ly49A is incomplete. Here we report that following simultaneous T cell receptor (TCR) and Ly49A engagement, phosphorylation of Zap70, Erk1/2 and c-Jun were significantly diminished. Kinetic studies indicated that Ly49A did not simply delay activation but had a long-lasting effect. In contrast, when only costimulatory signals were provided through CD28, Ly49A engagement did not block p38 MapK or Akt phosphorylation. Likewise, expression of the downstream targets Bcl-xl and Baff were unaffected. Together these data suggest that engagement of Ly49A selectively inhibits signals downstream of the TCR but spares those unique to CD28. These results suggest that when considering its use as an immunotherapy, the potency of inhibitory receptors such as Ly49A may be further improved by pairing them with costimulatory blockade. Take together, these studies suggest that abnormal post-translational regulation of c-Maf function is a novel marker of altered T cell function in T1D and use of inhibitory receptors such as Ly49A may be optimized combining this approach with other complementary therapies.

Submitted by Natalia de Souza Gonçalves (natalia.goncalves@ufpe.br) on 2016-09-23T14:12:48Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) TESE-Plinio correta.pdf: 2445148 bytes, checksum: af634e24f9f6564ebd9b8c37b5d9c2f8 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-23T14:12:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) TESE-Plinio correta.pdf: 2445148 bytes, checksum: af634e24f9f6564ebd9b8c37b5d9c2f8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-03-10 / Serra Talhada, no sertão Pernambucano, registra grandes surtos de dengue. O armazenamento inadequado de água devido a estiagem prolongada, contribui para a perpetuação dos mosquitos. Além disso, Aedes albopictus também pode gerar maiores problemas para o município. Em nossas análises, o número de casos de dengue no período de 2012 a 2013, possui correlação com o número de ovos coletados no mês anterior. Apesar dos surtos intermitentes, o baixo número de casos de Dengue Hemorrágica, levanta questões a respeito de genes de suscetibilidade/resistência. Por isso, analisamos as frequências alélicas e genotípicas do marcador CCR5 e dos SNPs IL-4, IL-10 e Ly-6. Em nossos resultados, a mutação CCR5Δ32, apresentou baixa frequência. Os SNPs IL-4 e IL-10 encontraram-se em desequilíbrio de Hardy-Weinberg. Em relação às frequências alélicas, quando comparadas à população global, Ibérica, Peruana e Africana, observamos diferenças significativas para IL-4, mas não para IL-10. Já Ly-6 apresentou frequência alélica significativa em relação a Ibéricos, Peruanos e Africanos. A frequência genotípica dos genótipos CT e TT de IL-4, apresentaram diferenças significativas em relação a todas as populações. Enquanto que o genótipo TT de IL-10 foi significativamente diferente em relação aos Ibéricos. Para Ly-6, o genótipo GG foi significativamente diferente em relação à população africana, enquanto AG e AA diferiram das populações Ibérica, Peruana e Africana. Porém, só após o acréssimo de um grupo controle ou de outra categoria comparativa, teremos resultados conclusivos. / Serra Talhada, in semiarid of Pernambuco State, register every two years, dengue outbreaks. Inadequate water storage due prolonged drought, perpetuate the mosquito. Moreover, Aedes albopictus, may cause major problems for the municipality. Our analysis detected that the number of dengue cases in the period 2012-2013, has correlation with the number of eggs collected in the previous month. Despite facing intermittent outbreaks, the low number of cases of Hemorhagic Dengue, raises questions about susceptibility / resistance genes. Therefore, we analysed allelic and genotypic frequencies of the marker CCR5 and SNPs IL-4, IL-10 and Ly-6. About our results, the CCR5Δ32 mutation, showed a low frequency. About SNPs IL-4 and IL-10, Hardy-Weinberg disequilibrium were found. Regarding to allele frequency significant differences were observed for IL-4 but not IL-10 when compared to the overall population, Iberian, Peruvian and African. Ly-6 showed significant allele frequency compared to Iberian, African and Peruvian. Concerning to genotypic frequency, significant differences in relation to all populations were found to CT and TT genotype of IL-4. While the TT genotype of IL-10 was significantly different in relation to the Iberian. For Ly-6, the GG genotype was significantly different in relation to the African population, while AG and AA differ from the Iberian populations, Peruvian and African. However, to conclusive results regarding these markers, it becomes necessary to add a control group or another comparative category

Cannabinoid treatment increases Th2 activity and previous reports showed B cells express the highest level of CB2 mRNA relative to other immune cells suggesting that cannabinoids play a critical role in B cell activation and maturation. To examine the direct effect of cannabinoids on B cell antibody class switching, mouse splenic B cells were purified by negative selection and cultured with IL4 and anti-CD40 in the presence or absence of the nonselective cannabinoid agonist, CP55940, or the CB1 selective agonist, methanandamide, or the CB2 selective agonist, JW015. The cultures were then analyzed at different times by flow cytometry for expression of B cell surface markers, such as CD19, CD138, CD40, MHCII, CD23, CD80, CD45R, immunoglobulins produced such as IgM, IgE, IgD, and IgG1, and Toll-like receptors such as TLR 2 and 4. Cells treated with CP55940 showed an increase in surface expression of IgE by day 5 in culture; methanandamide had no effect. CP55940 also induced an increase in secreted IgE in culture supernatants analyzed by ELISA. In addition, CB2 receptors were increased on B cells following stimulation with IL-4 and anti-CD40 and the class switching effect of CP55940 was attenuated by the CB2 antagonist, SR144528. We also observed that cannabinoid treatment of B cells modulates cell functions other than antibody class switching such as surface marker and TLR expression. CP55940 caused a significant increase in surface expression of TLR 4, but had no effect on other markers. Additional experiments with cannabinoid receptor selective agonists and antagonists suggested both CB1 and CB2 receptors were involved in the TLR effect. Receptor involvement and Gi coupling was supported by our findings that cannabinoids inhibit intracellular cAMP levels in forskolin stimulated B cells, and increasing intracellular cAMP with forskolin suppressed IgE antibody class switching in activated B cell cultures. These results suggest cannabinoids negatively regulate cAMP in B cells resulting in increased IgE. In conclusion, cannabinoids can directly affect the function of B cells by inducing antibody class switching to IgE and TLR4 expression through mechanisms involving CB1 and CB2 receptors suggesting the endocannabinoid system may be an important regulator of humoral immunity and the allergic response.