And the Tradition Continues: The Ceramics of Inka Period in Ayacucho Valley, PerúIn this paper, I evaluate the stylistic classification of the so called "Chanka" pottery. On the basis of the most recent findings I argue that the Chanka pottery, in particular Arqalla and Aya Orqo types, is not an exclusive pre-Inka manifestation. The new evidence from Qaqas strongly suggests that the local pottery tradition continued being manufactured during Inka times. The Inka state, therefore, seems not to have altered much the local tradition and that local populations seem to have continued inhabiting the Ayacucho Valley, at least in its northern end. / En el presente ensayo se evalúa la clasificación estilística de lo que se conoce como cerámica "chanka". Sobre la base de recientes descubrimientos, se postula que la cerámica chanka, en particular sus variedades alfareras Arqalla y Aya Orqo, no es una manifestación exclusivamente preinka. Las evidencias provenientes de Qaqas, discutidas en este ensayo, sugieren que la tradición alfarera local preinka continuó manufacturándose durante el tiempo de auge del Imperio Inka. El Estado Inka, por lo tanto, parece no haber alterado mucho a la tradición local y las poblaciones locales parecen haber seguido habitando en el valle de Ayacucho, por lo menos en su sector norte.

<p>The research work addresses the changes that occurred in the valley and the Yungas of Cochabamba during the Inka Horizon (1400-1538 AC) while introducing in an exploratory way, the Late Intermediate (1100-1400 AC) and the Middle Horizon (400-1100 AC) periods. In theoretical terms, we emphasize the local human agency (individual and social) as important elements in order to understand the processes of social change. We assume that the complex relational webs generated by the Inka presence in the valleys and the Yungas appear as "traces" in the space (as constructed landscapes: social, agro-hydrological, sacral, administrative, war landscapes etc.) that can be seized from two sources, archaeological and historical, that are seen as complementing each other. </p><p>We carried out two case studies in the Yungas of Tablas Monte and Inkachaca /Paracti. In both areas, previously unknown to Bolivian archaeology, we examined the impact of the Inka. Based upon material evidence, such as the sophisticated agro-hydrological system sustained by an intensive use of the stone as well as documentary data, we discuss the presence of warrior groups, i.e. that the arrival of the Inka had a relative impact in this area.</p>

The research work addresses the changes that occurred in the valley and the Yungas of Cochabamba during the Inka Horizon (1400-1538 AC) while introducing in an exploratory way, the Late Intermediate (1100-1400 AC) and the Middle Horizon (400-1100 AC) periods. In theoretical terms, we emphasize the local human agency (individual and social) as important elements in order to understand the processes of social change. We assume that the complex relational webs generated by the Inka presence in the valleys and the Yungas appear as "traces" in the space (as constructed landscapes: social, agro-hydrological, sacral, administrative, war landscapes etc.) that can be seized from two sources, archaeological and historical, that are seen as complementing each other. We carried out two case studies in the Yungas of Tablas Monte and Inkachaca /Paracti. In both areas, previously unknown to Bolivian archaeology, we examined the impact of the Inka. Based upon material evidence, such as the sophisticated agro-hydrological system sustained by an intensive use of the stone as well as documentary data, we discuss the presence of warrior groups, i.e. that the arrival of the Inka had a relative impact in this area.

Lors du développement d'un logiciel, plusieurs phases de test sont mises en oeuvre. Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons particulièrement à deux d'entre elles : les test unitaire et le test d'intégration. Dans le test unitaire, les entités du logiciel sont testées individuellement. Elles sont ensuite intégrée au sein d'un agrégat qui est soumis à un test d'intégration. Lors de cette phase, on cherche traditionnellement à tester les interactions entre ces entités. Nous nous intéressons plus particulièrement dans cette thèse au test structurel unitaire. Lors de cette phase de test, si l'entité contient des app rers d'autres entités, elles sont remplacées par des bouchons simples qui facilitent le test. Ces bouchons ne sont pas exempts de défauts. En particulier, ils sont généralement pas représentatifs des entités qu'ils remplacent. Les taux de couverture obtenus pendant le test ne représentent donc pas l'utilisatin éelle de la fonction testée. Dans cette thèse, nous proposons d'étendre la phase de test unitaire aux agrégats de fonctions. Tous les bouchons nécessaires sont produits automatiquement à partir du code des fonctions appelées. Pour cela, on se base sur une analyse et un découpage du flot de ontrôle de la fonction appelée en approximations, ainsi que sur la détermination de l'environnement particulier de chaque appel. Cet environnement ontient les informations sur les conditions d'appel à la fonction et sur l'impact de cet appel sur le flot de contrôle de la fonction appelante. On crée inalement le bouchon spécifique à un appel par filtrage des approximations par le contexte d'appel. On sélectionne ensuite une approximation pour chaque objectif de génération. L'ensemble de cette technique a été implanté au sein d'un prototype basé sur l'outil de test Inka.

Inkahealing är en relativt ny företeelse på den religiösa arenan, men har redan etablerat organisationer i elva västländer. Inkahealing har uppenbara ytliga likheter med New age-rörelsen, men ingen tidigare forskning finns på detta område. Målet med denna uppsats är ett jämföra Inkahealing med New age för att utröna var denna nya rörelse egentligen hör hemma. Undersökningen visar att det finns grundläggande likheter mellan Inkahealing och New age, med endast få undantag. En klar slutsats begränsas dock samtidigt av problematiken kring begreppet New age.

Mortuary remains within an archaeological context can illuminate the social and political aspects not only of the individual(s) buried, but also of the living who interred them. Although this is so, a consensus has not been reached in regard to the following questions: how can we determine the social identity of the living that interred the dead? What are the implications of the living-dead interaction, and how do mortuary practices alter social memory in order to fit political needs? This thesis constitutes an initial attempt to answer these questions while examining pre-internment mortuary practices, and associated ideologies regarding the afterlife based on data collected during the 2015 field season by members of the Proyecto de Investigación Arqueológica Panquilma (PIAP), under the direction of Dr. Enrique Lopéz-Hurtado, of the Instituto de Estudios de Peruanos Programa de Investigación. This project is centered at the Late Intermediate Period (LIP) to Late Horizon (LH) secondary Ychsma site of Panquilma in the mid-Valley of the Lurín River Valley, Central Coast of Peru. This research aims to determine the time period and significance of a puzzling structure that was excavated at the cemetery’s margin at Panquilma in order to determine the building’s potential role in ancestral veneration practices of the lesser-elites. Upon first glance this structure appeared to have a layout of a household structure but was located near the cemetery, far from the residential center of the site. A wide array and substantial quantities of exotic and/or ritual items such as sheet metal fragments, colorful bird feathers, orpiment, and manuports, as well as Spondylus sp. and Nectandra sp. beads were discovered within this building suggesting non-mundane or non-domestic usages. Was this structure used in the preparation and care of the funerary bundles? Did it house an important figure (e.g., a shaman) in both their life and death? Or did it serve as a workshop for preparing ritual items? In an effort to ascertain the significance of this structure, this thesis examines the aforementioned remains as well as its relative location and the results from portable X-ray Fluorescence (pXRF) analyses of some of the excavated artifacts in order to provide a deeper understanding of mortuary practices at Panquilma and thus the Ychsma’s concept of and interaction with the dead on the Central Coast of Peru. The exact function of this structure cannot be concretely stated, but the diverse lines of evidence present appear to favor the first hypothesis in which this structure functioned as a funerary preparation area, but principally for elite and/or ritually significant bundle(s). This was ascertained due to the numerous exotic and/or ritual artifacts found associated within this Inkaic structure that likely served a ritualistic function in regard to water and agricultural fertility as well as serving as indirect evidence for elite ancestral veneration practices.

Least Cost Path Analysis (LCPA) is a GIS-based approach for calculating the most efficient route between a start and end point, often in terms of shortest time or least amount of energy. The approach is often applied in archaeology to estimate locations of sites, and routes between them. We applied LCPA to estimate how sites in the Andes in the eastern portion of the Inka empire may have connected to sites in the western Amazon Basin. Our approach further used the known Inka Road network to test performance of two types of LCP models (linear vs. areal calculation) and four types of cost functions. LCPs can be calculated with an areal approach, where each cell of the DEM is given one overall slope value, or linearly, where the direction of travel across a cell affects the slope value. Four different algorithms were tested: Tobler's Hiking Function (1993), Tobler's Hiking Function with a vertical exaggeration of 2.3 based on human perceptions of slope (Pingel 2010), Pingel's empirical estimation approach (2010), and Pandolf et al.'s energy expenditure equation (1977) using both an areal and linear approach for all the algorithms. An initial study was conducted in the Cusco region and results were compared to the Inka Road network using the linear accuracy assessment method of Goodchild and Hunter (1997) and Güimil-Fariña and Parcero-Oubiña (2015). The findings suggest that the empirical estimation and caloric cost methods were the most accurate and performed similarly, both were more accurate than travel-time based costs, and linear methods were better than areal based methods when using higher resolution DEM inputs. / Master of Science / Least Cost Path Analysis (LCPA) is a method used for determining the most efficient route between a start and end point, often in terms of shortest time or least amount of energy. The approach is often applied in archaeology to estimate locations of sites, and routes between them. We applied LCPA to estimate how sites in the Andes in the eastern portion of the Inka empire may have connected to sites in the western Amazon Basin. Our approach further used the known Inka Road network to test performance of two types of Least Cost Path (LCP) models (linear vs. areal calculation) and four types of cost functions. LCPs can be calculated with an areal approach, where each cell in an elevation dataset is given one overall slope value, or linearly, where the direction of travel across a cell affects the slope value. Four different ways of calculating cost were tested: Tobler's Hiking Function (1993) using time as a cost, Tobler's Hiking Function with a vertical exaggeration of 2.3 where the cost is based on human perceptions of slope (Pingel 2010), Pingel's empirical estimation approach (2010) based on the preexisting Inka Road system, and Pandolf et al.'s energy expenditure equation (1977). All four ways of calculating costs were used both an areal and linear approach. An initial study was conducted in the Cusco region and results were compared to the Inka Road network by seeing what percent of each LCP was within 500 m of the Inka Road. The findings suggest that the empirical estimation and energy based methods were the most accurate and performed similarly, both were more accurate than travel-time based costs, and linear methods were better than areal based methods when using higher resolution elevation data inputs.

Ethnic Identity under Inka Rule: An Archaeological and Ethnohistoric Assessment of the Effects of the Inka State on the Canas Ethnic GroupCieza de Leon describes how after agreeing to an amnesty with Inka Viracocha the Canas ethnic group became major allies of the Inka and relocated their settlements away from the hill tops and down onto the valley floor. In this paper we will consider these claims in the light of archaeological evidence for changes and continuities within the Canas territory during the Late Intermediate and Inka periods. This will be primarily based upon the results of survey, architectural analysis, excavations and artifact studies within a 520 km2 survey area around the site of Cacha/Raqchi. We will describe the very limited effect which inclusion within the Inka Empire seems to have had on local settlement organization as well as examing the administrative apparatus that the Inka state located within the Canas territory. We will evaluate what this archaeological evidence tells us about how the Inka treated their allies and to what degree local ethnic identity can be recognized before, during, and following incorporation into the Inka Empire. Finally, we will contrast the Canas situation with the factors that led to the development of an "Inka" identity in the Cuzco region prior to the emergence of the Inka state. / Cieza de León describe como luego de acordar una amnistía con el Inka Viracocha, el grupo étnico Canas se convirtió en aliado principal de los inkas y reubicó sus asentamientos lejos de la cumbre de los cerros y, más bien, se asentaron en el fondo de los valles. En el presente trabajo se consideran estas afirmaciones a la luz de las evidencias arqueológicas de cambios y continuidades dentro del territorio canas durante el Periodo Intermedio Tardío y el Periodo Inca. Por ello se basa primeramente en los resultados de análisis de datos de prospección, análisis arquitectónicos, excavaciones y estudios de los artefactos en un área prospectada de 520 km2 alrededor del sitio de Cacha/Raqchi. Se describe el efecto muy limitado que la incorporación dentro del imperio parece haber tenido en el patrón de asentamiento local, así como se examina el aparato administrativo que el estado estableció dentro del territorio canas. Se evalúa lo que estas evidencias arqueológicas aportan acerca de cómo los inkas trataron a sus aliados y en que grado se puede reconocer la identidad étnica local antes, durante y después de su incorporación dentro del Imperio Inka. Finalmente, se contrasta la situación de los canas con los factores que condujeron al desarrollo de la identidad "inka" en la región del Cuzco antes del surgimiento del Estado Inka.

Inka Colonialism, the Chicha Consumption and the Feasting: A Perspective from the "Commensal Politics"This essay treats the "commensal politics" of feasting in the Inka state and its implications for understanding certain domains of political action and pre-Hispanic colonialism. State-sponsored feasts were usually political and ritual and comprised an important instrument in manipulating power relations and the public production and consumption of some food and drink. Some archeological and ethnographic implications of commensal politics also are discussed. / Este ensayo analiza el concepto de carácter de "banquetes políticos" de los festines o fiestas públicas en el Estado inka y sus implicancias con el fin de entender ciertos aspectos de la conducta política y el colonialismo prehispánicos. Por lo general, los banquetes auspiciados por el Estado son tanto rituales como políticos y constituyen un instrumento importante en el manejo de las relaciones políticas y del consumo de alimentos y bebida. Se discuten también algunas implicancias arqueológicas y etnográficas de los banquetes políticos.

Tutelar Apus and Settlements in Preinka CuscoThe mountains which define the valley of Cusco and which were responsible for its occupation have been considered sacred within the context of Andean magico-religiosity. These geographical features —reverentially referred to as apus, wakas and paqarinas— constituted sites in the landscape that gave rise to important historical and mythical events. As real and tangible places, these landscape features engendered and nourished the different ayllus during the pre-Hispanic hegemony of these human groups within the valley. / Los cerros que definen al valle del Cusco han sido considerados sagrados dentro del contexto mágico-religioso andino, lo que indujo a su ocupación. Dichos accidentes geográficos —reverenciados como apus, wakas y paqarinas— constituyeron los escenarios en los que se protagonizaron importantes acontecimientos históricos y míticos. Como elementos tangibles y reales, enraizaron y fortalecieron a los diferentes ayllus y grupos humanos del valle durante la hegemonía andina prehispánica.