The study uses remotely sensed data from (1) air borne altimetry and radio echo sounding, (2) Landsat satellite imagery, and (3) aerial photography, to investigate aspects of the morphology and dynamics of the ice caps of Nordaustlandet, Svalbard. Data collection, methods of reduction and errors are discussed. Three principal topics are examined. First, as a preliminary to comprehensive radio echo sounding operations over Nordaustlandet, the ability of 60 MHz radar equipment to sound ice at or near its melting point was tested over a number of glaciers in Spitsbergen. Ice thickness data were obtained from 38 glaciers. The results are compared with previous geophysical investigations of ice thickness on Spitsbergen, revealing problems concerning existing Soviet radio echo sounding data obtained at higher frequencies. An internal layer echo was interpreted as the bed by Soviet workers. Second, the ice caps of Nordaustlandet, about which little glaciological information was previously available, are described and mapped. The coastline and ice margins are located using corrected satellite imagery. The surface of the ice caps is described in detail, and ice divides and drainage basins are mapped. Synoptic data on relative surface elevations from digitally enhanced Landsat imagery is calibrated using accurate airborne altimetric information available only along flight lines. The morphology of the underlying bedrock, and the thickness of the ice cover above it, is recorded. Ice thickness on Austfonna-Sorfonna reaches 583 m and 28% of the bed is below present sea level. Third, several aspects of the regional glaciology of the Nordaustlandet ice caps are examined. Digital analysis of ice cap surface radiance characteristics provides data on snow line position and mass balance. The spatial and temporal pattern of detector saturation in each band of the Landsat MSS over snow in the polar regions is predicted from analysis of the influence of sun elevation. Regions of ice cap basal melting are identified from enhanced Landsat imagery by the presence of suspended sediment plumes off shore. No plumes are observed off Brasvellbreen, which is probably stagnant and frozen to its bed after a recent surge. The recent fluctuations of 20 outlet glaciers are recorded from enhanced imagery, a method accurate to +150 m. Three groups of basins, with distinctive dynamic behaviour, are defined from an analysis of variations in long profiles and the pattern of driving stresses within the ice caps. First, basins which have surged and are now in the quiescent period between such activity are relatively stagnant. They typically have low surface profiles and driving stresses. Second, several outlet glaciers of southern Vestfonna have marked shear zones separating them from the surrounding ice and also have low surface slopes . They are interpreted as flowing fast over a lubricated bed on a continuous basis and may provide a small scale analogue for ice streams in the large ice sheets. Third, other basins in Nordaustlandet have high marginal driving stresses and relatively steep surface profiles and are interpreted as being frozen to their beds near the margins at least. Although three dynamic classes of basin have been identified, field data from them do not support the analysis and modelling of Budd (1975).

This thesis is concerned with the modelling of sea ice, particularly in regions where it is composed of individual floes interacting through collisions. This has been done by modifying and extending existing models that have demonstrated their ability to simulate sea ice in various Arctic and Antarctic regions. The purpose of this study is the introduction of the representation of floes, in terms of their size and number, into a sea ice model, thus adding a feedback mechanism and a further output to the output fields normally produced by sea ice models, the ice velocity and the ice thickness distribution and the ice concen tration. Many of the physical processes concerning floes that are relevant to a sea ice model have not yet been investigated quantitatively. These aspects of floe behaviour used as model input are calculated from idealized mechanical models of a floe field. These include determinations of floe collision rates, side melting of floes and the cracking of floes in high winds. The strength of the pack ice is investigated, and in particular the effect of open water on the strength is considered. The shape of a plastic yield curve used in the model to determine the ice interaction forces is derived theoretically. The model used includes both thermodynamics and dynamics. The ice thickness characteristics and floe sizes change due to growing and melting, advection, floe cracking, floe collisions, and redistribution processes such as ridging and rafting. Daily wind and temperature data together with long term ocean currents are used as input to drive the model. The results of a six month simulation of the sea ice development in the (Eas t) Greenland region are presented and discussed together with a comparison with the observations.

The aim of this thesis has been to establish the patterns of ice movement in the Conway catchment and the relationships between Welsh and Irish Sea ice on the coast. Work has concentrated on analyses of till particle sizes, lithologies and fabrics (84 samples from inland and 56 from coastal exposures), supplemented by information from boreholes (c. 300)t meltwater channels and erosional and depositional landforms. Trend surface, cluster and factor analyses have been used where appropriate to synthesise till data. A north-eastwards flow of ice in the south paralleling the upper Conway and Machno valleys, points to an ice shed running north-westwards from Migneint to the head of the Lledr valley. The north-north-eastwards flow off the Carneddau. indicates these mountains also acted as an important source of ice. The northwards flow of ice along the eastern margin of the Vale is attributed to the influence of the marked topography of the Vale. The evidence does not favour an ice cap on the Denbighshire Moors. The distribution of meltwater channels and till suggests that ice overtopped the eastern watershed of the catchment during the last glaciation. The uppermost till on the coast is the distinctive Red Irish Sea till which is found as far South as Llansantffraid Glan Conway and on Great Ormes Head at a height of 190 m (620 ft). in coastal exposures it is underlain by Welsh and Irish Sea tills. No direct evidence of the age or the time intervals between successive tills is available but there is nothing to suggest they are not Devensian in age. The possibilities that the local sequence demonstrates a readvance or alternatively conflicts between Welsh and Irish Sea glaciers are explored, and tentative correlations drawn with sequences described in adjacent areas.

Ice recrystallization during thawing after cryopreservation results in extensive cellular damage that ultimately leads to cell death and decreased cell viabilities. This is a significant problem particularly with cryopreserved cells utilized in various regenerative medicine therapies. Given the success of these therapies to treat spinal cord injury, cartilage lesions, and cardiacdisease, the development of new and improved cryprotectants that minimize cell damageduring freeze-thawing and improve cell viability post-cryopreservation are urgently required. The current cryopreservative dimethyl sulfoxide, DMSO, is associated with cytotoxicity in clinical settings and is not an optimal cryopreservative. Our laboratory is interested in synthesizing small molecules that possess the property of ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) activity that can be utilized as cryopreservatives without the cytotoxic effects associated with DMSO. This thesis focuses on the development of small molecule ice recrystallization inhibitors and elucidating the structural features of disaccharides and surfactants that are responsible for potent IRI activity. The first part of this study examines simple disaccharide derivatives mimicking those found in the native AFGP to determine whether disaccharide structure influences IRI activity. Towards this end, the (1,6)-linked AFGP disaccharide analogue was synthesized, assessed for IRI activity using a splat-cooling assay, and compared to the native (1,3)- and (1,4)-linked AFGP disaccharide analogues. The change in linkage was found to have a profound affect on IRI activity. The second part of the study focuses on surfactants and gelators as ice recrystallization inhibitors. Our laboratory has demonstrated that carbohydrate-based hydrogelators can be potent inhibitors of ice recrystallization. While our studies have indicated that a delicate balance between hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions is crucial for ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) activity, the essential structural features necessary for potent IRI activity remain unknown. To address this issue, structurally diverse amino acid-based surfactants/gelators, anti-ice nucleating agents, and glycoconjugates were synthesized and assessed for IRI activity. The results indicate that long alkyl chains and increased hydrophobicity are important for potent IRI activity and iii that the position of these alkyl chains is essential. Also, the counterion of these compounds affects the IRI activity and is related to the counterion degree of hydration. These compounds were assessed for their ability to cryopreserve human liver cells (Hep G2) and human bone marrow cells (Tf-1α) in cell-based assays. Additionally, the best IRI assay solution was determined, which involved studying how the salts of the phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution modulated IRI activity. Finally, small molecule ice recrystallization inhibitors were assessed for their ability to protect the viral vectors vaccinia virus, vesicular stomatitis virus, and herpes simplex-1 virus at various storage conditions. This will aid in developing improved preservation protocols for vaccines and viruses utilized in cancer therapy (oncolytic viruses).

Over the past few decades, there has been an increase in the development of new cellular therapies used for the treatment of various conditions. Thus, the rapid development of therapies requiring transfusion and transplantation of cells has resulted in a need to preserve these cellular therapy products. Cryopreservation is the only currently used method for the long-term storage of cells. The most commonly used cryoprotectants are 10% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) for hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and 40% glycerol for red blood cells (RBCs). DMSO fails to protect the functionality of HSCs after cryopreservation and therefore, up to 20% of HSC transplantations fail to engraft. The glycerol in thawed RBC units must be removed to <1% to prevent intravascular hemolysis which is time-consuming. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop improved cryoprotectants for HSCs and RBCs. DMSO and glycerol are unable to control ice recrystallization which is a major source of cellular injury during cryopreservation. Therefore, compounds with the ability to inhibit ice recrystallization could represent a new class of cryoprotectant with a novel mechanism of action. This thesis focuses on the rational design of small-molecule ice recrystallization inhibitors. The key structural attributes required for ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) activity are investigated. The amphiphilic balance required for IRI activity is explored. Furthermore, two new classes of small-molecule IRIs containing aromatic rings were rationally designed. As a result, several very highly IRI active molecules were discovered. The use of IRIs to improve the cryopreservation of HSCs and RBCs was explored. A number of IRIs improved the post-thaw functionality of HSCs. Supplementation of the current cryoprotectant solution with IRIs resulted in an increase in CFU recovery and frequency of multipotent progenitors. This would reduce the percentage of engraftment failure and allow for a larger proportion of cord blood banks’ inventory to provide an adequate dose for patients requiring transplants. Several IRIs were found to be effective cryoprotectants for RBCs with reduced amounts of glycerol. This could reduce the deglycerolization time for RBCs. These results demonstrate the potential of small-molecule IRIs to improve the current cryopreservation procedures for important cellular therapy products.

The vibrations of H₂O, HDO and D₂O molecules participating in the hydrogen bonding of vitreous and crystalline solids, and some alkyl halides and halogens encaged in these solids, were studied by infrared spectroscopy between 4.2 and 200°K over the 4000 to l60 cm⁻¹ frequency range. Four kinds of 0-H‧‧‧‧0 hydrogen bonding lattices were investigated, vitreous and annealed (cubic) ice I and vitreous and annealed clathrate-hydrate mixtures. In vitreous ice I the effects on the molecular and lattice vibrations were observed in detail for H₂O between 77 and l80°K during the phase transformation to cubic ice I, and the results of the transformation for HDO and D₂O were recorded. As well, the effects on the molecular and lattice vibrations of H₂0, D₂0, H₂0 (5-9W HDO), and D₂0 (4.00% HDO) cubic ices I were studied during warming from 4.2 to 200°K. Similar studies were made for the vibrations of H₂0, HDO, D₂0 and guest molecules, during the vitreous-crystalline phase transformation of seven clathrate-hydrate mixtures and during warming of the resulting annealed mixtures. For ice I the method involved condensation of the vapour at 77°K, observation of the spectra during warming in stages to 185 ± 5°K, cooling to 4.2°K, and observation of the cubic sample spectra during warming to 200°K. The results were plotted as a function of temperature and were correlated to calculated distances and RMS amplitudes of translation. As well four models for molecular libration were investigated. Three approaches were taken to the clathrate-hydrate problem. In parallel to the ice I method gaseous stoichiometric mixtures were condensed, observed during transformation, cooled to 4.2°K and observed during warm-up. Other gaseous clathrate mixtures were condensed in an isolated sample chamber, to prevent sample fractionation, and treated as before. Finally, low temperature mulls of solid clathrate-hydrate mixtures were prepared and observed at 83 ± 3°K. The results show that on warming the ice I phase transformation occurred between 120 ± 5 and 135 ± 5°K and required, less than 18 minutes at 135 ± 3°K. Weak peaks due to oligomeric H₂O and D₂O units disappeared during annealing, while all hydrogen bonded H₂O molecular modes shifted to lower frequency and all lattice modes shifted to higher frequency. The half-height widths of the composite H₂O band (v₂/2vR) appeared to increase upon annealing and to decrease upon warming while the (VR, VR + vT) and (v₁, v₃, v₁ + vT) bands had the opposite behaviour. This was interpreted, as indicating a weak 2vR band underlying the stronger v₂ absorption near 1600 cm⁻¹. The frequency-temperature dependences of all cubic ice I bands were interpreted on a bilinear, high and low temperature basis (the lattice modes shifted to lower frequency and the molecular modes to higher frequency with increasing temperature). For HDO above 86°K [formula omitted] was 0.200 ± 0.005 cm⁻¹/°K, [formula omitted] was 0.123 ± 0.005 cm⁻¹/°K, the frequencies were "frozen-in" at 80 ± 5°K and 65 ± 5°K and had irregular behaviours between 50 and 70°K. The low temperature dependences were 0.047 ± 0.005 cm⁻¹/°K in both modes. An explanation is given for the apparent displacement of the HDO stretching frequencies from the H₂O and D₂O frequencies. The HDO results also permitted the accurate determination of [formula omitted] as 1921 cm⁻¹/Å and [formula omitted] as 128l cm⁻¹/Å above 150°K and as 8202 cm⁻¹/Å and 6629 cm⁻¹/Å below 100°K. As well, the HDO stretching frequencies gave an anharmonicity which increased from 4.2 to 80°K and then decreased between 80 and 200°K. The clathrate-hydrate mixtures transformed on warming in the temperature range 125 ± 5 to 145 ± 5°K and required less than l8 minutes at 135°K as for ice I. Similarly, the weak oligomeric and guest absorptions disappeared upon annealing. From the comparison of the three sets of "clathrate" results and the behaviour of annealed sample peaks we concluded that cubic ice I and not clathrate-hydrate was probably formed. / Science, Faculty of / Chemistry, Department of / Graduate

The Marginal Ice Zone includes wide areas covered by dispersed ice floes in which wave conditions are significantly affected by the ice. When the wind blows from the solid ice pack, towards the open sea, growing waves are scattered by the floes, their spectral characteristics being modified. To further understand this problem, a model for the evolution of wind waves in a sparse field of ice floes was developed. The sea state is described by a two-dimensional discrete spectrum. Time-limited wave growth is obtained by numerical integration of the energy balance equation using the exact nonlinear transfer integral. Wave scattering by a single floe is represented in terms of far-field expressions of the diffracted and forced potentials obtained numerically by the Green's function method. The combined effect of a homogeneous field of floes on the wave spectrum is expressed in terms of the Foldy-Twersky integral equations under the assumption of single scattering. The results show a strong dependence of the spectrum amplitude and directional properties on the ratio of the ice floe diameter to the wavelength. For a certain range of this parameter, the ice cover appears to be very effective in dispersing the energy; the wave spectrum rapidly tends to isotropy, limiting its growth both for the energy content and the peak frequency. It is therefore unlikely that an offshore wind blowing over the Marginal Ice Zone would generate a significant wave field. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

I detta examensarbete har en analys genomförts som visar hur energiförbrukningen ändras utifrån fyra olika tjocklekar av tilläggsisolering. Även en analys av ett fönsterbyte och en kombination av ett fönsterbyte och tilläggsisolering har gjorts. Analysen har genomförts med hjälp av ett simuleringsprogram som heter IDA – ICE. Analysen ska sedan användas som underlag för Skebo vid kommande projekt för renovering av fastigheten. För att kunna göra denna analys har Skebo tillhandahållit information och data om husets skick och energiförbrukning. De värden som Skebo inte kunnat tillhandhålla har antagits eller så har schablonvärden används. Byggnaden testades där tilläggsisoleringen hade fyra olika tjocklekar. Den första isoleringen var 50 mm och stegades sedan upp med 50 mm tills den nåde 200 mm. Det som gick att avläsa ur resultatet var att mellan 100 mm -150 mm avtog tilläggsisoleringens effekt. Då måste det läggas mer kostnader på att fixa köldbryggor i klimatskalet istället. Resultatet visade att ett fönster byte skulle ge en lika bra energibesparing som en 150 mm tilläggsisolering. Det visade sig även om både fönster och tilläggsisolering gjordes så blev energibesparingen likvärdig jämfört med om varje individuell åtgärd adderats. Vid normala fall brukar det ej vara så, eftersom alla energieffektiviseringar påverkar varandra och vid en kombination av åtgärderna brukar dessa bli mindre tillsammans än summan av varje enskild åtgärd.

Ice cream has been defined as » frozen dairy-product, with or without natural flavoring, containing sugar, and a specified amount of butter fat as required by the laws or regulations of the various states and the Federal government. Ordinarily ice cream consists of cream, sugar, flavoring, and some stabilizer which is usually gelatin. These are the principal ingredients, but rich cream may be thinned by the addition of skim milk, or skim-milk powder may be added, to build up the solid s-not- fat and thus improve the body. Ice cream is truly a frozen dairy-product, although other products than cream may enter into its makeup. The different ingredients that enter into an ice cream mix exist in different grades, concentrations and forms. It is desirable, therefore, in order to obtain constructive data, to follow a logical approach which would be to study first, simple isolated portions of the system m that is, the different types of dispersed phases in the dispersion medium taken singly - and then the effects of the combinations of such systems, gradually increasing the complexity.

Currently 341 ice rinks are in operation in Sweden with an estimated total energy consumption of 384 GWh/year. As it has been revealed in previous studies, most of the ice arenas are constructed and/or not operated efficiently. Thus it is considerable energy saving potential, which could be achieved in this area. The potential is even more significant if one can consider the savings in the ice rinks all over the world. This report is an in-depth study, which aims at analysing the Swedish ice rinks energy consumption and estimation of the corresponding energy saving potential. The report analyses the energy statistics obtained through the Stoppsladd study, which includes the ice rinks inventory, data collection and compilation of energy relevant data for 100 ice rinks located in Sweden. The inventory has revealed a number of important statistical figures, such as total energy consumption average in total (estimated to be 1,137 MWh/year) and for different ice arenas categories in particular. Relevant specific energy consumption values as well as a number of other important figures are also provided in the paper, thus giving an idea on the way to minimise energy consumption at each specific ice rink. The results are additionally supported by statistical multifactor regression analysis, which resulted in a relation between the ice rink’s total energy consumption and some known factors values affecting it. Two in-depth studies fulfil the Stoppsladd project by analysing water quality and ice quality effect on the ice rink’s energy consumption and investigation of the static and dynamic heat flow distribution in ice rink slab. A static heat flow distribution model of an ice rink evaluated the effect of concrete  with different properties on temperature and heat flow distribution within an ice rink floor slab. The study proves that the ice rink refrigeration system COP2 could be increased with 3.5 % just implementing new high thermal conductivity concrete layer into the conventional concrete ice rink floor. The static analysis results were further completed with dynamic analysis, which adequately reflects the thermodynamic response of the concrete ice rink floor to a varying heat load. As a result, the thesis represents a holistic approach to the ice rink energy efficiency increase problem and provides a good basis for further studies in relevant areas. It is proved that modified concrete allowing higher (efficient) secondary refrigerant tempera­tures and also provides better response to change in heat load to the system. / Stoppslad