Malgré l'augmentation constante de l'efficacité des cellules photovoltaïques multi-jonctions destinées au photovoltaïque concentré, des pertes de performances subsistent à haute concentration solaire. Elles sont principalement causées par un ombrage excessif dû aux métallisations ou par effet Joule à cause de la résistance série. Une des solutions à ce problème est de reporter le contact métallique en face avant sur la face arrière grâce à des vias métallisés et isolés électriquement. Avec cette architecture, les pertes dues à l'effet Joule et à l'ombrage seront limitées et des gains en efficacité sont attendus. Toutefois, l'intégration de vias sur des cellules photovoltaïques triple jonction favorise la recombinaison électron-trou en surface et peut provoquer une perte de performances de ces dispositifs. Ce mémoire présente les travaux de recherche effectués visant à étudier précisément cette problématique ainsi qu'à proposer des solutions pour limiter ces pertes. L'objectif est d'évaluer les pertes de performances de cellules photovoltaïques triple jonction suite à l'intégration de vias. Dans un second temps, l'objectif secondaire vise à limiter les pertes grâce à des traitements de passivation. Les résultats et solutions qu'apporte ce projet représentent une étape clé dans la réalisation de cette nouvelle architecture de contact électrique pour cellules photovoltaïques. En effet, les conclusions de ce projet de recherche permettent de valider la possibilité d'obtenir des gains en efficacité grâce à cette architecture. De plus, les procédés de microfabrication présentés dans ce projet de recherche proposent des solutions afin d'intégrer des vias sur ces hétérostructures tout en limitant les pertes en performances.

The design, fabrication and performance of an Extraordinary Magnetoresistance (EMR) and a Vertical Mesa Hall Sensor (VMHS) are studied. EMR devices have been fabricated from a 2DEG InAs/GaSb structures which exhibit a low carrier density and high mobility that achieve the best performance. The general electrical magneto-transport properties are given. The experiments investigate mainly different metallic patterns, which are Rectangular, Triangular and Tip pattern between 4-300 K. Probe configurations and the enhancement of relative size of metallic patterns are described. EMR effect is due to current deflection around the metal-semiconductor interface. The results are metallic pattern dependent. Using finite element analysis, good agreement between experimental and theoretical results was found. The best performance sensor is a symmetrical metallic Tip pattern. It is enhanced by the length of the Tip’s point and the large metallic area. This pattern when combines with an asymmetrical probe configuration, exhibits the highest EMR of 900% at –0.275T measured by inner probes and the best sensitivity of 54Ω/T at room temperature. The second study presents in-plane Hall effect sensors made from InSb. A simple device geometry has been used in which current flows in a plane perpendicular to the device surface. Device sensitivity depends on its geometry and a series of different contacts are used to investigate the geometry of the current flow distribution. The structures produced are only sensitive to the presence of one in-plane field component, and they also demonstrate good angular selectivity. Multi-electrodes were used to investigate biasing current from both mesa and substrate condition. We are able to examine the Hall voltage as a function of contact positions and also to create multiple VMHS. Offset reduction of devices has been achieved by moving the ground contacts to re-balance the current distribution under the mesa surface.

Because the surface plays an important role in the electrical and optical properties of GaN devices, an improved understanding of surface effects should help optimize device performance. In this work, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and related techniques have been used to characterize three unique sets of n-type GaN samples. The sample sets comprised freestanding bulk GaN with Ga polar and N polar surfaces, epitaxial GaN films with laterally patterned Ga- and N-polar regions on a common surface, and truncated, hexagonal GaN microstructures containing Ga-polar mesas and semipolar facets. Morphology studies revealed that bulk Ga-polar surfaces treated with a chemical-mechanical polish (CMP) were the flattest of the entire set, with rms values of only 0.4 nm. Conducting AFM (CAFM) indicated unexpected insulating behavior for N-polar GaN bulk samples, but showed expected forward and reverse-bias conduction for periodically patterned GaN samples. Using scanning Kelvin probe microscopy, these same patterned samples demonstrated surface potential differences between the two polarities of up to 0.5 eV, where N-polar showed the expected higher surface potential. An HCl cleaning procedure used to remove the surface oxide decreased this difference between the two regions by 0.2 eV. It is possible to locally inject surface charge and measure the resulting change in surface potential using CAFM in conjunction with SKPM. After injecting electrons using a 10 V applied voltage between sample and tip, the patterned polarity samples reveal that the N-polar regions become significantly more negatively charged as compared to Ga-polar regions, with up to a 2 eV difference between charged and uncharged N polar regions. This result suggests that the N-polar regions have a thicker surface oxide that effectively stores charge. Removal of this oxide layer using HCl results in significantly decreased surface charging behavior. A phenomenological model was then developed to fit the discharging behavior of N-polar GaN with good agreement to experimental data. Surface photovoltage (SPV) measurements obtained using SKPM further support the presence of a thicker surface oxide for N polar GaN based on steady state and restoration SPV behaviors. Scanning probe microscopy techniques have therefore been used to effectively discriminate between the surface morphological and electrical behaviors of Ga- vs. N-polar GaN.

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

L’avènement des technologies itinérantes s’est accompagné de l’accroissement des besoins en autonomie des appareils électroniques mobiles. De plus la forte densité d’intégration des dispositifs conduit aux limites de dissipation thermique des systèmes de refroidissement classiques. Ainsi dans cette thèse le régime de fonctionnement bas Vds a été investigué dans les HEMTs à base de matériaux faibles gaps afin de réduire les puissances consommées. Cette étude est réalisée à 300K et 77K. Concernant les HEMTs à base d’antimoine des performances records ont été publiées à 300K (fT = 144GHz à 100mV pour Lg=120nm). En termes de performances en bruit à la fois pour les HEMTs industriels étudiés et les HEMTs à base d’antimoine à 30GHz et Vds=100mV un NFmin autour de 1.6dB et un Gass de l’ordre de 6dB sont atteints pour des puissances dissipées inférieures à 10mW/mm. Enfin des dimensionnements d’amplificateurs faibles bruit ont été réalisé afin d’évaluer la potentielle réalisation d’une électronique basse consommation à température ambiante et cryogénique. Ces dimensionnements ont permis d’obtenir à 100mV de tension drain un NF autour de 1,7dB pour un gain associé avoisinant 6dB avec une puissance dissipée inférieure à 6mW/mm à température ambiante et à basse température (77K) la valeur de NF est autour de 0,6dB pour un gain associé supérieur à 7dB. / Advent of itinerant technologies was done with the autonomy needs increase in the mobile electronics devices. In addition the high devices integration density leads to the thermal dissipation limits of the classic cooling systems. Thus in this thesis the low Vds operation mode is investigated in narrow band gap materials based HEMTs in order to reduce the power consumption. This study is done at room temperature (300K) and at cryogenic temperature (77K). Concerning antimonide based HEMTs, record performances was published at 300K (fT = 144GHz à 100mV for Lg=120nm). In terms of noise performances both of industrial studied HEMTs and antimonide based HEMTs present at 30GHz and Vds=100mV NFmin value around 1.6dB and Gass around 6dB for power dissipation lower than 10mW/mm. Finally low noise amplifier (LNA) design is done in order to evaluate the potential use of those devices in low power consumption electronics at room and cryogenic temperature. Those designs allowed to obtain at Vds=100mV NF value around 1.7dB and Gass around 6dB with power dissipation lower than 6mW/mm at room temperature and at cryogenic temperature NF value around 0,6dB for Gass value higher than 7dB.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Chemical Engineering / James H. Edgar / The semiconductor boron phosphide (BP) has many outstanding features making it attractive for developing various electronic devices, including neutron detectors. In order to improve the efficiency of these devices, BP must have high crystal quality along with the best possible electrical properties. This research is focused on growing high quality crystalline BP films on a variety of superior substrates like AIN, 4H-SiC, 3C-SiC and ZrB₂ by chemical vapor deposition. In particular, the influence of various parameters such as temperature, reactant flow rates, and substrate type and its crystalline orientation on the properties of BP films were studied in detail. Twin-free BP films were produced by depositing on off-axis 4H-SiC(0001) substrate tilted 4° toward [1-100] and crystal symmetry matched zincblende 3C-SiC. BP crystalline quality improved at higher deposition temperature (1200°C) when deposited on AlN, 4H-SiC, whereas increased strain in 3C-SiC and increased boron segregation in ZrB₂ at higher temperatures limited the best deposition temperature to below 1200°C. In addition, higher flow ratios of PH₃ to B₂H₆ resulted in smoother films and improved quality of BP on all substrates. The FWHM of the Raman peak (6.1 cm⁻¹), XRD BP(111) peak FWHM (0.18°) and peak ratios of BP(111)/(200) = 5157 and BP(111)/(220) = 7226 measured on AlN/sapphire were the best values reported in the literature for BP epitaxial films. The undoped films on AlN/sapphire were n-type with a highest electron mobility of 37.8 cm²/V·s and a lowest carrier concentration of 3.15x1018 cm⁻ᶟ. Raman imaging had lower values of FWHM (4.8 cm⁻¹) and a standard deviation (0.56 cm⁻¹) for BP films on AlN/sapphire compared to 4H-SiC, 3C-SiC substrates. X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy revealed residual tensile strain in BP on 4H-SiC, 3C-SiC, ZrB₂/4H-SiC, bulk AlN substrates while compressive strain was evident on AlN/sapphire and bulk ZrB₂ substrates. Among the substrates studied, AlN/sapphire proved to be the best choice for BP epitaxy, even though it did not eliminate rotational twinning in BP. The substrates investigated in this work were found to be viable for BP epitaxy and show promising potential for further enhancement of BP properties.

Os compostos semicondutores ternários, dentre eles o Ga1-xInxSb, têm sido objeto de interesse de pesquisadores e da indústria microeletrônica devido à possibilidade de ajuste da constante de rede, assim como a correspondente modificação da banda proibida de energia e do intervalo de emissão e absorção óptica, com a variação da fração molar de x. A flexibilidade destas propriedades estruturais torna este composto apropriado como substratos para epitaxias de outros compostos ternários e quaternários, na formação de mono e heterojunções. A maneira mais econômica para obtenção de substratos de materiais semicondutores é através do crescimento de cristais a partir da fase líquida. Porém, os parâmetros que regem a obtenção de lingotes de Ga1-xInxSb com qualidade comercial, a partir da fase líquida, ainda não estão bem definidos. O índio tende a segregar para o líquido, pois seu coeficiente de segregação é menor que a unidade (k < 1), resultando num perfil composicional variado ao longo do lingote. Como os binários GaSb e InSb apresentam configurações de defeitos intrínsecos que originam condutividades de tipos opostos, tipo p e tipo n, respectivamente, a mudança na composição da liga, durante o crescimento, provavelmente resulta na modificação da concentração de cada um destes defeitos. A dopagem com telúrio consiste numa alternativa para minimizar a segregação do índio e diminuir a densidade dos defeitos pontuais, melhorando a qualidade estrutural de cristais de Ga1-xInxSb obtidos através do método Bridgman convencional. Desta forma foram crescidos cristais ternários Ga1-xInxSb, com e sem agitação do líquido durante a síntese, com fração molar inicial de índio de 10% e 20%, alguns deles dopados com 1020 átomos/cm3 de telúrio, pelo método Bridgman vertical. A caracterização estrutural em termos de formação de defeitos lineares, interfaciais e volumétricos foi realizada através de imagens obtidas por microscopia óptica, eletrônica de varredura e de transmissão. A homogeneidade composicional e distribuição de fases foi avaliada através de medidas de espectroscopia por dispersão de energia. Medidas de resistividade e efeito Hall foram utilizadas para a caracterização elétrica, enquanto que a transmitância óptica e a banda proibida de energia foram avaliadas por espectrometria FTIR. Os padrões de difração obtidos através da microscopia eletrônica de transmissão foram utilizados para avaliar a cristalinidade das amostras e determinar o parâmetro de rede. Os resultados obtidos indicam que o telúrio atua de forma compensatória, minimizando a segregação de índio e contribuindo para a homogeneidade composicional e redução de defeitos, principalmente de discordâncias. Além disso, altera a condutividade do Ga1-xInxSb para tipo n, mesmo em frações molares de In inferiores a x = 0,5, diminuindo o número de cargas positivas na rede atribuídas aos defeitos tipo GaSb e VGaGaSb e, desta forma, aumenta a concentração de portadores de carga e reduz a resistividade. Na condição de alta dopagem, reduz a transmitância óptica no infravermelho e aumenta a banda proibida de energia através do efeito Burstein-Moss. A avaliação de cristais de Ga1-xInxSb, dopados e não dopados, crescidos pelo método Bridgman convencional contribuiu para o entendimento do comportamento de dopantes em compostos semicondutores ternários. / Ternary compound semiconductors, including Ga1-xInxSb, have been subject of interest of researchers and microelectronics industry because of the possibility of adjusting the lattice constant, as well as the corresponding modification in the band gap energy, and in the optical absorption and emission range, by varying the mole fraction x. The flexibility of their structural properties makes this compound suitable as substrates for epitaxy of other ternary and quaternary compounds, in the formation of mono- and heterojunctions. The most economical way to obtain semiconductor substrates is by crystal growth from the liquid phase. However, the parameters governing the outcoming of Ga1-xInxSb ingots with commercial quality, from liquid phase, are not well defined. Indium tends to segregate to the liquid, since its segregation coefficient is less than the unity (k < 1), resulting in a varied compositional profile along the ingot. As the binary GaSb and InSb have intrinsic defects configurations that originate opposite conductivities, type p and type n, respectively, the change in the alloy composition, while growing, probably results in a modification of the concentration on each of these defects. Doping with tellurium is an alternative to minimize the indium segregation and decrease the density of point defects, therefore improving the structural quality of Ga1-xInxSb crystals obtained through the conventional Bridgman method. Thus, ternary Ga1-xInxSb crystals were grown by vertical Bridgman method with and without stirring the melt during the synthesis, with 10% and 20% initial molar fraction of indium and some of them were tellurium-doped at 1020 atoms/cm3. The structural characterization regarding linear, interfacial, and volumetric defects formation was performed by using images obtained through optical, scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The compositional homogeneity and phase distribution was assessed by energy-dispersive spectroscopy measurements. Resistivity and Hall Effect measurements were used for the electrical characterization, while the optical transmittance and the band gap energy were examined by FTIR spectroscopy. Diffraction patterns obtained by transmission electron microscopy were used to evaluate the crystallinity of the samples and determine the lattice parameter. The results indicate that tellurium acts in a compensatory way, minimizing indium segregation and contributing to the compositional homogeneity and defect reduction, especially in dislocations. In addition, it changes the conductivity of Ga1-xInxSb to n-type, even in mole fraction of In lower than x = 0.5, reducing the number of positive charges on the network assigned to GaSb and VGaGaSb defects, thus increasing the concentration of charge carriers and reducing the resistivity. In high doping condition, it reduces the optical transmittance in the infrared region and increases the energy of the band gap by the Burstein-Moss Effect. The evaluation of Ga1-xInxSb crystals, doped and undoped, grown by the conventional Bridgman method contributed to the understanding of dopants behavior in ternary compound semiconductors.

The present work is concerned with the theory of optical and magnetic properties of deeo centers in various III-V semiconductors.

O processo de isolação elétrica por implantação de prótons é estudado para os casos do semicondutor GaAs e de estruturas DBR - Distributed Bragg Reflectors - de AlGaAs. A obtenção da energia crítica de implantação em camadas DBR de dispositivos VCSELs, Vertical Cavity Surface Emmiting Lasers, é exemplificada. Medidas da evolução da resistência destas estruturas com a dose de prótons irradiada, tanto para amostras tipo-n quanto para tipo-p, revelaram comportamentos qualitativamente semelhantes para os transportes eletrônicos paralelo e perpendicular às heterojunções. O mesmo valor de dose de limiar para isolação pode ser usado em ambos os casos. A estabilidade térmica da isolação de camadas DBR é estimada em ~150oC. O uso de um modelo simples de conservação de carga é sugerido para a simulação do processo de isolação por implantação em semicondutores, empregando como entrada a distribuição de níveis introduzidos pela irradiação. A comparação dos resultados dessa simulação com dados experimentais para o caso específico do GaAs revela que os modelos de defeitos previamente associados a antisítios na literatura não são suficientes para descrever a isolação. Os dados obtidos até então sobre a estrutura de níveis introduzida pela implantação com prótons também não reproduzem completamente o comportamento observado. Um sistema para medidas de Espectroscopia de Transientes de Níveis Profundos (DLTS) foi desenvolvido para a realização de experimentos visando identificar os níveis responsáveis pela isolação e determinar seus parâmetros relevantes. Quatro contribuições principais foram observadas em GaAs tipo-n (n1, n2, n3 e n4) implantado com prótons, e outras cinco para GaAs tipo-p (p1, p2, p3, p4 e p5). O nível p1, com energia aparente de 0,05 eV e secção de choque de captura de lacunas de 1x10-16 cm2, havia sido identificado previamente em amostras irradiadas com elétrons, mas pela primeira vez foi medido em amostras GaAs tipo-p implantadas com prótons. Medidas de variação de taxas de emissão com o campo elétrico foram realizadas em n1, n2, n3, p1, p2 e p3. O efeito Poole-Frenkel foi identificado como o responsável pelo comportamento observado em p2. Já para n3 e n1, mostrou-se que o responsável é o efeito de tunelamento auxiliado por fônons. O nível p3 não apresentou variação considerável em sua taxa de emissão com o campo; enquanto que os níveis n2 e p1revelaram comportamentos que indicam a presença de ambos os efeitos (Poole-Frenkel e tunelamento auxiliado por fônons). Esses dados, combinados com informações sobre as taxas de introdução obtidas a partir dos espectros DLTS, nos levam a parâmetros para os defeitos introduzidos pela implantação que conseguem descrever, de maneira aceitável, a curva de isolação experimental para doses menores que aproximadamente o dobro da dose de limiar, sugerindo que vacâncias de arsênio e anti-sítios de GaAs desempenhem um papel importante nesta etapa do processo. / The electrical isolation by proton implantation process is studied for the specific cases of AlGaAs Distributed Bragg Reflectors (DBR) and bulk GaAs. The critical implant energy evaluation is exemplified for AlGaAs DBR layers on Vertical Cavity Surface Emmiting Lasers devices. Sheet resistance measurements as a function of the proton fluence on both p-type and n-type samples presented similar behaviors for the electronic transports parallel and perpendicular to the heterojunctions. The same dose threshold value can be used in both cases. The DBR structures isolation thermal stability is estimated as ~150oC. A simple charge neutrality calculation is employed to simulate the implant isolation process in semiconductors using as input data on the deep levels introduced during irradiation. For the case of bulk GaAs, comparison between simulation results and experimental sheet resistance versus dose curves pointed out that models previously suggested for anti-site defects are not able, by their own, to reproduce the actual isolation behavior. Simulation using information previously obtained on proton implant related deep levels also didn’t reproduce the experimental curves. A Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) system was developed in order to properly identify the deep levels introduced by proton implantation and obtain the relevant parameters regarding each one of these levels. Four main contributions were measured in n-type proton bombarded GaAs (n1, n2, n3 and n4), and other five in p-type samples (p1, p2, p3, p4 and p5). p1 level, with 0.05 eV apparent energy and 1x10-16 cm2 apparent capture cross section, was measured for the first time in proton implanted GaAs. Electric field related emission rate enhancement measurements were carried out on n1, n2, n3, p1, p2 and p3. Poole-Frenkel effect was identified as the responsible for the behavior obtained for p2. Concerning the cases of n3 and n1, the effect responsible for the measured emission rate enhancement was found to be the phonon assisted tunneling. Level p3 presented no appreciable emission rate enhancement with the electric field, and levels n2 and p1 revealed behaviors pointing out the presence of both Poole-Frenkel and phonon assisted tunneling effects. Introduction rates of the measured levels were also obtained. All these data and other previous information on defects in proton bombarded GaAs could then be compiled together, producing a more complete and accurate input for the simulation, which leads to results reproducing the experimental curve in an acceptable manner for doses lower than twice the threshold value. This result points to a very active participation of As vacancies and GaAs in the GaAs implant isolation process.

abstract: The work described in this thesis explores the synthesis of new semiconductors in the Si-Ge-Sn system for application in Si-photonics. Direct gap Ge1-ySny (y=0.12-0.16) alloys with enhanced light emission and absorption are pursued. Monocrystalline layers are grown on Si platforms via epitaxy-driven reactions between Sn- and Ge-hydrides using compositionally graded buffer layers that mitigate lattice mismatch between the epilayer and Si platforms. Prototype p-i-n structures are fabricated and are found to exhibit direct gap electroluminescence and tunable absorption edges between 2200 and 2700 nm indicating applications in LEDs and detectors. Additionally, a low pressure technique is described producing pseudomorphic Ge1-ySny alloys in the compositional range y=0.06-0.17. Synthesis of these materials is achieved at ultra-low temperatures resulting in nearly defect-free films that far exceed the critical thicknesses predicted by thermodynamic considerations, and provide a chemically driven route toward materials with properties typically associated with molecular beam epitaxy. Silicon incorporation into Ge1-ySny yields a new class of Ge1-x-ySixSny (y>x) ternary alloys using reactions between Ge3H8, Si4H10, and SnD4. These materials contain small amounts of Si (x=0.05-0.08) and Sn contents of y=0.1-0.15. Photoluminescence studies indicate an intensity enhancement relative to materials with lower Sn contents (y=0.05-0.09). These materials may serve as thermally robust alternatives to Ge1-ySny for mid-infrared (IR) optoelectronic applications. An extension of the above work is the discovery of a new class of Ge-like Group III-V-IV hybrids with compositions Ga(As1–xPx)Ge3 (x=0.01-0.90) and (GaP)yGe5–2y related to Ge1-x-ySixSny in structure and properties. These materials are prepared by chemical vapor deposition of reactive Ga-hydrides with P(GeH3)3 and As(GeH3)3 custom precursors as the sources of P, As, and Ge incorporating isolated GaAs and GaP donor-acceptor pairs into diamond-like Ge-based structures. Photoluminescence studies reveal bandgaps in the near-IR and large bowing of the optical behavior relative to linear interpolation of the III-V and Ge end members. Similar materials in the Al-Sb-B-P system are also prepared and characterized. The common theme of the above topics is the design and fabrication of new optoelectronic materials that can be fully compatible with Si-based technologies for expanding the optoelectronic capabilities of Ge into the mid-IR and beyond through compositional tuning of the diamond lattice. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Chemistry 2018