É feito um resumo dos principais modelos criados para se explicar as intrigantes propriedades do centro DX e atualizar o problema. O decaimento da fotocondutividade persistente (PPC) é medido em AlxGa1-x As dopado com Si e se discute a validade dos modelos em função da cinética de captura dos elétrons pelos centros DX. Boa concordância com o modelo de Chadi e Chang é encontrada desde que se postule a existência de um nível doador mais raso. O crescimento por MBE assim como todo o processamento de amostras para os experimentos realizados é descrito sinteticamente. É discutido também o problema dos contatos a baixa temperatura e a possível influência dos centros DX nos desvios do comportamento ôhmico observados. Inclui-se também a descoberta da. fotocondutividade persistente em AlxGa1-xAs dopado com Pb, que também é relacionado à existência dos centros DX. / A short discussion about the main models created to explain the striking properties of the DX center is done in order to bring the problem up-to-date. The decay of persistent photoconductivity is measured and it is analyzed as a function of the kinetics of electron trapping by DX centers in Si-doped AlxGa1-xAs, according to these models. Good agreement with Chadi and Chang\'s model is found as long as we postulate the existence of a shallower donor. The M.B.E. growth as well as the whole sample processing is shortly described. It in siso diacussed the problem of low temperature contacts and the possible influence of DX centers in the deviation from ohmic behavior. Persistent Photoconductivity has been found in Pb-doped AlxGa1-xAs and it is also related to the DX center existence.

L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier les propriétés physico-chimiques des surfaces et des interfaces des couches minces par spectroscopie de photoémission (XPS), diffraction des photoélectrons (XPD), et la photoémission résolue en temps (PTR). Les expériences sont réalisées en utilisant une source standard des rayons X AlKa à l'INL ou les rayons X mous auprès du synchrotron Soleil. La première étude sur le système Pt/ Gd203/ Si(111) a montré que le transfert de charge entre le Pt et 0 à l'interface Pt/Gd203 implique un déplacement chimique de niveau Pt4f sans modification des caractéristiques de la composante métallique des spectres XPS. L'étude XPD montre que Pt se cristallise partiellement en deux domaines : [110] Pt(111) // [110] Gd203 (111) et [101] Pt(111) / / [110] Gd203 (111). De plus, une autre phase ordonnée d'oxyde de platine Pt02 à l'interface a été observée. A travers la caractérisation de la morphologie déterminée par la technique AFM et XPD, nous avons discuté l'adhésion aux interfaces métal/oxyde. La deuxième étude traite l'évolution d'interface d'un système modèle : métal non réactive/ semi-conducteur, dépendent fortement des conditions thermodynamiques. Nous avons étudié la couche mince d'Au déposée sur le substrat Si(001) par photoémission résolue en temps (TEMPO- synchrotron Soleil). L'étude XPS, montre avant le recuit la formation de l'oxyde native Si02 sur l'heterostructure à température ambiante. La désorption de cet oxyde se produit à faible température et induit une décroissance de l'intensité des photoélectrons durant le temps de recuit. La désorption de l'oxyde Si02 et la formation de l'alliage AuSi sont responsables de la gravure et la formation des puits de forme cubique à la surface de Si due à l'activité catalytique de l'Au. La troisième étude concerne la croissance du graphène à partir de cristal de SiC(0001)- face Si par décomposition thermique. Le niveau de coeur C1s résolu en trois composantes principales sont associées au carbone de 6H-SiC, de graphène, et l'interface graphène/ 6H-SiC (0001). L'intensité de chaque composante est rapportée en fonction de l'angle polaire (azimutale) pour différents angles azimutales (polaire). Les mesures XPD fournissent des informations cristallographiques qui indiquent clairement que les feuillets de graphène sont organisés en structure graphite sur le substrat 6H-SiC (0001). Cette organisation résulte de l’effondrement de la maille de substrat. Enfin, le découplage à l'interface graphène/ 6H-SiC (0001) par l'oxygène a été étudié par XPS. La dernière étude concerne la croissance du film mince d'InP par MBE sur le substrat SrTi03 (001). L'intégration des semi-conducteurs III-V sur le Si, en utilisant la couche tampon d'oxyde SrTi03 est l'objet des intenses recherches, en raison des applications prometteuses dans le domaine de nano-optoélectronique. Les niveaux de coeur O1s, Sr3d, Ti2p, In3d, P2p ont été analysés et rapportés en fonction de l'angle azimutale à différents angles polaires. La comparaison des courbes XPD azimutales de Sr3d et In3d montre que les ilots InP sont orientées (001) avec la relation d'épitaxie; [110]InP(001 )/ / [100]! SrTi03 (001). La caractérisation morphologique par AFM montre des ilots InP facettés régulièrement dispersée à la surface. / The main objective of this thesis is to study the chemical and physical properties at the surface or at the interface between thin layers by photoemission spectroscopy (XPS), photoelectron diffraction (XPD), and time resolved photoemission (PTR) . The experiments were conducted using an Alka source at INL or soft -X ray synchrotron radiation at Soleil, the French national Synchrotron facility. The first photoemission study has been performed on platinum deposited on thin Gd2(h layers grown by Molecular Bearn Epitaxy (MBE) on Si (111) substrate. The charge transfer between Pt and 0 at the interface causes a chemical shift to higher binding energies without changing the characteristic shape of the metal XPS peak. The XPD study shows that Pt is partially crystallized into two (111)-oriented do mains on Gd20 3 (111) with the in-plane epitaxial relationships [11 0] Pt (111) / / [11 0] Gd203 (111) and [101] Pt(111)/ / [11 0] Gd20 3 (111). In addition to bi-domains formation of platinum Pt (111) on Gd20 3 (111), a new ordered phase of platinum oxide Pt02 at the Pt/ Gd203 interface have been observed. The study of the background of the polar curves depending of the morphology has shown, that the film of Pt does not wet on the oxide, due to the low energy of interaction at the interface compared to the Pt thin layer. The second study has been interested to the photoemission time-resolved study of non-reactive metal / semiconductor model system. We have studied the thin layer gold (Au) growth on silicon (Si) substrate before and during annealing in TEMPO beam line (synchrotron Soleil).The XPS study, shows before annealing the formation of silicon native oxide on heterostructure at ambient temperature. The desorption of silicon oxide during annealing at low temperature induce photoemission intensity decreases with time. The desorption of oxide and alloy formation (AuSi) induce distribution of pits with cubic form at silicon surface due to gold etching activity. The third photoemission study has concerned thin films of a few layers of graphene obtained by solid-state graphitization from 6H-SiC (0001) substrates have been studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and X-ray photoelectron diffraction (XPD). The Cls core-level has been resolved into components, which have been associated with carbon from bulk SiC, carbon from graphene and carbon at the interface graphene/ 6H-SiC (0001). Then, the intensity of each of these components has been recorded as a function of polar (azimuth) angle for several azimuth (polar) angles. These XPD measurements provide crystallographic information which clearly indicates that the graphene sheets are organized in graphite-like structure on 6H-SiC(0001), an organization that results of the shrinking of the 6H-SiC (0001) lattice after Si depletion. Finally the decoupling of graphene from 6H-SiC (0001) substrate by oxygen intercalation has been studied from the XPS point of view. Finally, photoemission study has concerned thin film of InP (phosphor indium ) islands grown by Molecular Bearn Epitaxy (MBE) on SrTi03 (001) bulk substrate have been investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and diffraction (XPS/ XPD).Integration of III-V semi-conductor on silicon wafer, via SrTi03 buffer is currently the subject of intense research because of its potentially interesting applications in future nano-optoelectronics. The Ols, Sr3d, Ti2p, In3d, and P 2p core level area have been studied as function of azimuth angle for different polar angles. Comparison of the XPD azimuth curves of Sr3d and In3d shows that islands InP are oriented (001) with an in-plane epitaxial relationship [110] InP(001 ) // [100] SrTi03 (001). AFM images shows that InP islands are regularly dispersed on the surface. Their shape is a regularly facetted half-sphere.

The progress in device performance of modern microelectronic technology is mainly driven by down-scaling. In the near future, this road will probably reach a point where physical limits make even more down-scaling impossible. The substitution of single components materialwise over the last decades, like high-k dielectrics or metal gates, has been a suitable approach to foster performance improvements. In this scheme, the integration of high-mobility III-V compound semiconductors as channel materials into Si technology is a promising route to follow for the next one or two device generations. III-V integration, today, is conventionally performed by using techniques like molecular beam epitaxy or wafer bonding which utilize solid phase crystallization but suffer to strain due to the lattice mismatch between III-V compounds and Si. An alternative approach using sequential ion beam implantation in combination with a subsequent flash lamp annealing is presented in this work. Using this technique, nanocrystals from various III-V compounds have been successfully integrated into bulk Si and Ge as well as into thin Si layers which used either SOI substrates or were grown by plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition. The III-V compounds which have been fabricated are GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InP, InAs, GaSb and InxGa1-xAs with variable composition. The structural properties of these nanocrystals have been investigated by Rutherford backscattering, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, including bright-field, dark-field, high-resolution, high-angle annular dark-field and scanning mode imaging, electron-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy and energy-filtered element mapping. Furthermore, Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction have been performed to characterise the nanocrystals optically. In Raman spectroscopy, the characteristic transversal and longitudinal optical phonon modes of the different III-V compounds have been observed. These signals proof that the nanocrystals have formed by the combination of ion implantation and flash lamp annealing. Additionally, the appearance of the typical phonon modes of the respective substrate materials verifies recrystallization of the substrate by the flash lamp after amorphisation during implantation. In the bulk Si samples, the nanocrystals have a circular or rectangular lateral shape and they are randomly distributed at the surface. Their cross-section has either a hemispherical or triangular shape. In bulk Ge, there are two types of precipitates: one at the surface with arbitrary shape and another one buried with circular shape. For the thin film samples, the lateral shape of the nanocrystals is more or less arbitrary and they feature a block-like cross-section which is limited in height by the Si layer thickness. Regarding crystalline quality, the nanocrystals in all samples are mainly single-crystalline with only a few number of stacking faults. However, the crystalline quality in the bulk samples is slightly better than in the thin films. The X-ray diffraction measurements display the (111), (220) and (311) Bragg peaks for InAs and GaAs as well as for the InxGa1-xAs where the peaks shift with increasing In content from GaAs towards InAs. The underlying formation mechanism is identified as liquid phase epitaxy. Hereby, the ion implantation leads to an amorphisation of the substrate material which is then molten by the subsequent flash lamp annealing. This yields a homogeneous distribution of the implanted elements within the melt due to their strongly increased diffusivity in the liquid phase. Afterwards, the substrate material starts to recrystallize at first and an enrichment of the melt with group-III and group-V elements takes place due to segregation. When the temperature is low enough, the III-V compound semiconductor starts to crystallize using the recrystallized substrate material as a template for epitaxial growth. In order to gain control over the lateral nanocrystal distribution, an implantation mask of either aluminium or nickel is introduced. Using this mask, only small areas of the samples are implanted. After flash lamp treatment, nanocrystals form only in these small areas, which allows precise positioning of them. An optimal implantation window size with an edge length of around 300nm has been determined to obtain one nanocrystal per implanted area. During an additional experiment, the preparation of Si nanowires using electron beam lithography and reactive ion etching has been conducted. Hereby, two different processes have been investigated; one using a ZEP resist, a lift-off step and a Ni hard mask and another one using a hydrogen silsesquioxane resist which is used directly as a mask for etching. The HSQ-based process turned out to yield Si nanowires of better quality. Combining both, the masked implantation and the Si nanowire fabrication, it might be possible to integrate a single III-V nanocrystal into a Si nanowire to produce a III-V-in-Si-nanowire structure for electrical testing. / Der Fortschritt in der Leistungsfähigkeit der Bauelemente moderner Mikroelektroniktechnologie wird hauptsächlich durch das Skalieren vorangetrieben. In naher Zukunft wird dieser Weg wahrscheinlich einen Punkt erreichen, an dem physikalische Grenzen weiteres Herunterskalieren unmöglich machen. Der Austausch einzelner Teile auf Materialebene, wie Hoch-Epsilon-Dielektrika oder Metall-Gate-Elektroden, war während der letzten Jahrzehnte ein geeigneter Ansatz, um die Leistungsverbesserung voranzubringen. Nach diesem Schema ist die Integration von III-V-Verbindungshalbleiter mit hoher Mobilität ein vielversprechender Weg, dem man für die nächsten ein oder zwei Bauelementgenerationen folgen kann. Heutzutage erfolgt die III-V-Integration konventionell mit Verfahren wie der Molekularstrahlepitaxie oder dem Waferbonden, welche die Festphasenkristallisation nutzen, die aber aufgrund der Gitterfehlanpassung zwischen III-V-Verbindungen und Silizium an Verspannungen leiden. In dieser Arbeit wird ein alternativer Ansatz präsentiert, welcher die sequenzielle Ionenstrahlimplantation in Verbindung mit einer darauffolgenden Blitzlampentemperung ausnutzt. Mit Hilfe dieses Verfahrens wurden Nanokristalle verschiedener III-V-Verbindungshalbleiter erfolgreich in Bulksilizium- und -germaniumsubstrate sowie in dünne Siliziumschichten integriert. Für die dünnen Schichten wurden hierbei entweder SOI-Substrate verwendet oder sie wurden mittels plasmagestützer chemischer Gasphasenabscheidung gewachsen. Die hergestellten III-V-Verbindungen umfassen GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InP, InAs, InSb und InxGa1-xAs mit veränderbarer Zusammensetzung. Die strukturellen Eigenschaften dieser Nanokristalle wurden mit Rutherford-Rückstreu-Spektroskopie, Rasterelektronenmikroskopie und Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie untersucht. Bei der Transmissionelektronenmikroskopie wurden die Hellfeld-, Dunkelfeld-, hochauflösenden, “high-angle annular dark-field” und Rasteraufnahmemodi sowie die energiedispersive Röntgenspektroskopie und die energiegefilterte Elementabbildung eingesetzt. Darüber hinaus wurden Ramanspektroskopie- und Röntgenbeugungsmessungen durchgeführt, um die Nanokristalle optisch zu charakterisieren. Mittels Ramanspektroskopie wurden die charakteristischen transversal- und longitudinal-optischen Phononenmoden der verschiedenen III-V-Verbindungen beobachtet. Diese Signale beweisen, dass sich unter Verwendung der Kombination von Ionenstrahlimplantation und Blitzlampentemperung Nanokristalle bilden. Weiterhin zeigt das Vorhandensein der typischen Phononenmoden der jeweiligen Substratmaterialien, dass die Substrate aufgrund der Blitzlampentemperung rekristallisiert sind, nachdem sie durch Ionenimplantation amorphisiert wurden. In den Bulksiliziumproben besitzen die Nanokristalle eine kreisförmige oder rechteckige Kontur und sind in zufälliger Anordnung an der Oberfläche verteilt. Ihr Querschnitt zeigt entweder eine Halbkugel- oder dreieckige Form. Im Bulkgermanium gibt es zwei Arten von Ausscheidungen: eine mit willkürlicher Form an der Oberfläche und eine andere, vergrabene mit sphärischer Form. Betrachtet man die Proben mit den dünnen Schichten, ist die laterale Form der Nanokristalle mehr oder weniger willkürlich und sie zeigen einen blockähnlichen Querschnitt, welcher in der Höhe durch die Siliziumschichtdicke begrenzt ist. Bezüglich der Kristallqualität sind die Nanokristalle in allen Proben mehrheitlich einkristallin und weisen nur eine geringe Anzahl an Stapelfehlern auf. Jedoch ist die Kristallqualität in den Bulkmaterialien ein wenig besser als in den dünnen Schichten. Die Röntgenbeugungsmessungen zeigen die (111), (220) und (311) Bragg-Reflexe des InAs und GaAs sowie des InxGa1-xAs, wobei sich hier die Signalpositionen mit steigendem Gehalt an Indium von GaAs zu InAs verschieben. Als zugrundeliegender Bildungsmechanismus wurde die Flüssigphasenepitaxie identifiziert. Hierbei führt die Ionenstrahlimplantation zu einer Amorphisierung des Substratmaterials, welches dann durch die anschließende Blitzlampentemperung aufgeschmolzen wird. Daraus resultiert eine homogene Verteilung der implantierten Elemente in der Schmelze, da diese eine stark erhöhte Diffusivität in der flüssigen Phase aufweisen. Danach beginnt zuerst das Substratmaterial zu rekristallisieren und es kommt aufgrund von Segregationseffekten zu einer Anreicherung der Schmelze mit den Gruppe-III- und Gruppe-V-Elementen. Wenn die Temperatur niedrig genug ist, beginnt auch der III-V-Verbindungshalbleiter zu kristallisieren, wobei er das rekristallisierte Substratmaterial als Grundlage für ein epitaktisches Wachstum nutzt. In der Absicht Kontrolle über die laterale Verteilung der Nanokristalle zu erhalten, wurde eine Implantationsmaske aus Aluminium beziehungsweise Nickel eingeführt. Durch die Benutzung einer solchen Maske wurden nur kleine Bereiche der Proben implantiert. Nach der Blitzlampentemperung werden nur in diesen kleinen Bereichen Nanokristalle gebildet, was eine genaue Positionierung dieser erlaubt. Es wurde eine optimale Implantationsfenstergröße mit einer Kantenlänge von ungefähr 300 nm ermittelt, damit sich nur ein Nanokristall pro implantierten Bereich bildet. Während eines zusätzlichen Experiments wurde die Präparation von Siliziumnanodrähten mit Hilfe von Elektronenstrahllithografie und reaktivem Ionenätzen durchgeführt. Hierbei wurden zwei verschiedene Prozesse getestet: einer, welcher einen ZEP-Lack, einen Lift-off-Schritt und eine Nickelhartmaske nutzt, und ein anderer, welcher einen HSQ-Lack verwendet, der wiederum direkt als Maske für die Ätzung dient. Es stellte sich heraus, dass der HSQ-basierte Prozess Siliziumnanodrähte von höherer Qualität liefert. Kombiniert man beides, die maskierte Implantation und die Siliziumnanodrahtherstellung, miteinander, sollte es möglich sein, einzelne III-V-Nanokristalle in einen Siliziumnanodraht zu integrieren, um eine III-V-in-Siliziumnanodrahtstruktur zu fertigen, welche für elektrische Messungen geeignet ist.

[pt] As premências da sociedade contemporânea têm dependido gradativamente mais do uso de dispositivos optoeletrônicos como solução para o aperfeiçoamento de inúmeras aplicações diárias. Notadamente na última década, áreas como a de geração de energia elétrica com células solares inorgânicas ou a de computação com o advento de computadores quânticos baseados em fótons únicos têm acumulado muitos investimentos em pesquisa. Este trabalho visa estudar e definir os parâmetros necessários para a produção de pontos quânticos (QD, do inglês Quantum Dot) de semicondutores III-V com o objetivo de aplicá-los como material ativo para células solares de banda intermediária (IBSC, do inglês Intermediate Band Solar Cell) e para emissores de fótons únicos quando inseridos em nanofios (QD-in-NW, do inglês QD in Nanowire). Para a aplicação em IBSC, os pontos quânticos são produzidos auto organizadamente pelo modo Stranski-Krastanow. A estrutura de banda do IBSC requer um poço de potencial fundo o suficiente para gerar 3 absorções em paralelo de fótons com energias distintas (um proveniente da energia de gap do material da barreira, um da absorção banda-banda do poço de potencial e o terceiro da absorção intra-banda do poço na banda de condução). Os materiais escolhidos foram barreiras de AlxGa1-xAs e poço de InAs crescidos sobre um substrato de GaAs(100). Os resultados do crescimento dessa estrutura foram analisados por microscopia de força atômica (AFM, do inglês atomic force microscopy), microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET) e fotoluminescência (PL, do inglês photoluminescence). Para a aplicação em emissores de fótons únicos, os QDs (de InxGa1-xAs) são crescidos axialmente sobre nanofios de GaAs em substrato de GaAs(111)B. A técnica de crescimento escolhida neste caso foi o crescimento seletivo (SAG, do inglês selective area growth) que traz muitas vantagens com relação à qualidade cristalina e futuras litografias para fabricação do dispositivo. Tal técnica consiste na aplicação de uma máscara sobre o substrato com buracos nanométricos dentro dos quais a epitaxia ocorre exclusivamente. Os resultados de crescimento da estrutura foram analisados por MEV, MET, PL e espectroscopia de raios X por dispersão em energia (EDX, do inglês Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy). Em ambos os casos, o crescimento das estruturas finais foi otimizado. Foi possível obter correlações da influência de cada parâmetro de crescimento na morfologia, cristalinidade e composição das estruturas. No caso dos QDs para IBSC, o método usado de recobrimento por In-flush foi determinante para a melhoria da qualidade cristalina das camadas e da homogeneização da altura dos QDs. No caso da estrutura de QD-in-NW, primeiro precisou-se encontrar os parâmetros de crescimento dos nanofios para atingir uma razão de aspecto alta, e só posteriormente estudou-se as condições para que o InAs crescesse axialmente sobre o nanofio. As caracterizações, principalmente a ótica, de ambos os trabalhos indicam que as estruturas propostas foram produzidas. / [en] In contemporary society the dependence on optoelectronic devices for countless daily applications has increased gradually. Particularly in the last decade fields such as energy generation through inorganic solar cells or quantum computation based in exchange of single photons has been heavily funded for their development. The aim of this thesis is defining the production parameters needed to fabricate quantum dots (QD) based on III-V semiconductors with planar geometry for intermediate band solar cell (IBSC) and with nanowire geometry (quantum dot in nanowire, QD-in-NW) for single photon emitter applications. For IBSC, the QDs are generated via self-assembly by Stranski-Krastanow mode. The IBSC s band structure requires a potential well deep enough to have 3 parallel photon absorption in different energy ranges (one is the barrier s energy gap, another is from the valence band to the intermediate band and the third one is from the intermediate band to the top of the barrier). The selected materials were AlxGa1-xAs as barriers, InAs as well, all grown on GaAs(100) substrate. The growth results were analysed by atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning eléctron microscopy (SEM), transmission eléctron microscopy (TEM) and photoluminescence (PL). For the single photon emitters, the QDs (InxGa1-xAs) are grown axially over GaAs nanowires on a GaAs(111)B substrate. The chosen growth technique was the selective area growth (SAG) that brings many advantages in crystal quality and device lithography. This technique consists of applying a mask over the substrate with nanometric holes inside which the epitaxy occurs. The results were analysed by SEM, TEM, PL and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). In both cases, the growth of the structures were optimized for better quality. The growth parameters could be correlated with the structure’s morfology, cristalinity and composition. For the IBSC, a capping method named In-flush was used to increase the crystal quality from the layers and the homogeneity from the QD s heights. For the QD-in-NW, firstly the nanowire s growth was optimized for higher aspect ratio and only then the growth of the InAs QD was optimized for axial growth over the nanowire. In both cases the optical measurements show that the proposed structures were grown successfully.

[pt] A geração de energia fotovoltaica cresceu rapidamente em todo o mundo e está começando a contribuir com uma quantidade notável de produção de eletricidade no cenário mundial. Para desenvolver ainda mais o mercado fotovoltaico (FV), atrair mais empresas investidoras e torná-lo mais competitivo, os custos de produção ainda precisam ser reduzidos e a eficiência das células solares aumentada. Entre todas as tecnologias FV, as células solares de filme fino baseadas em materiais III-V são a tecnologia de maior sucesso e mais promissora para alcançar as mais altas eficiências de conversão de energia. Mesmo com a camada ativa na ordem de micrometros os fotovoltaicos de filmes finos são produzidos sobre substratos rígidos caros, mas indispensáveis como base cristalográfica e suporte mecânico na produção da camada ativa monocristalina. Entretanto, após a obtenção do filme fino FV o substrato original é totalmente dispensável pois não exerce nenhuma funcionalidade na célula. Desta forma, é crescente o interesse por tecnologias que permitam a comercialização de células solares sobre substratos leves, flexíveis e de baixo custo, ampliando não só a gama de aplicabilidades, mas também diminuindo os custos de produção, transporte e instalação. Este trabalho mostrará o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia geral para o processo de transferência de estruturas simples de filmes finos e estruturas de células solares completas de materiais III-V crescidos epitaxialmente por MOVPE (Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy). Materiais III-V foram transferidos para diferentes bases flexíveis e amostras contendo células solares III-V completas foram transferidas para substrato flexível de cobre obtido por eletrodeposição e para fita adesiva de cobre. As transferências foram realizadas com sucesso, sem danificar a estrutura e os contatos elétricos das células. Medidas de corrente tensão realizadas com simulador solar Sciencetech SF300A, com filtro AM1.5G, mostraram que as células em substratos flexíveis quando comparadas com elas em substratos rígidos apresentaram poucas alterações nas figuras de mérito e eficiência de conversão. As bases testadas apresentaram aderência, flexibilidade e suporte mecânico esperados para os filmes finos testados e as células solares completas transferidas. / [en] Photovoltaic power generation has grown rapidly across the world and is starting to contribute a remarkable amount of electricity production on the world stage. To further develop the photovoltaic (PV) market, attract more investing companies and make it more competitive, production costs still need to be reduced and the efficiency of solar cells increased. Among all PV technologies, thin film solar cells based on III-V materials are the most successful and most promising technology to achieve the highest energy conversion efficiencies. Even with the active layer in the order of micrometers, thin film photovoltaics are produced on expensive rigid substrates, but indispensable as a crystallographic base and mechanical support in the production of the monocrystalline active layer. However, after obtaining the FV thin film, the original substrate is completely unnecessary, since it does not exert any functionality in the cell. In this way, there is a growing interest in technologies that allow the commercialization of solar cells on light, flexible and low-cost substrates, expanding not only the range of applicability, but also reducing production, transport and installation costs. This work will show the development of a general methodology for the transfer process of simple thin-film structures and complete solar cell structures of III-V materials epitaxially grown by MOVPE (Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy). III-V materials were transferred to different flexible bases and samples containing complete III-V solar cells were transferred to flexible copper substrate obtained by electrodeposition and to copper adhesive tape. The transfers were carried out successfully, without damaging the structure or the electrical contacts of the cells. Current voltage measurements, performed with a Sciencetech SF300A solar simulator, with AM1.5G filter, showed that cells on the flexible substrates, when compared to them on rigid substrates, showed little changes in their figures of merit. The bases tested showed adhesion, flexibility and mechanical support expected for the thin films and complete solar cells transferred.

Le siècle dernier a vu l'accomplissement de la mécanique quantique, du traitement de l'information etde l'optique intégrée. Aujourd'hui, ces trois domaines se rencontrent pour donner naissance à l'optiqueintégrée pour les communications quantiques. Un des enjeux aujourd'hui dans ce domaine est ledéveloppement de sources de photons unique aux longueurs d’onde des télécommunications fibrés.Durant ce travail de thèse les émetteurs étudiés sont des boîtes quantiques d’InAsP épitaxiés parEPVOM (Epitaxie en Phase Vapeur aux OrganoMétalliques). On démontrera que ces objets uniquessont capables d’émettre des états quantiques de la lumière grâce à une expérience de dégroupement dephotons. De plus la spectroscopie de ces objets sera déduite des études résolues en temps. Lapossibilité d’intégrer ces objets au sein de nanocavité de taille ultime permet de modifier leur tauxd’émission spontanée, ainsi les résultats obtenus grâce aux cavités métalliques permettent d’observerune accélération de l’émission spontanée sur une large bande spectrale. Finalement il a été mis enévidence une forte modification de l’émission d’un ensemble de boîtes quantiques entre 4K et 300K,en utilisant une technique originale basé sur l’effet laser. / The last century saw the advent of quantum mechanics, information processing and integrated optics.These fields lead to the integrated optics for quantum communication. One of the challenges is thedevelopment of single photon sources operating at fiber’s telecommunication wavelength. In this workwe use quantum dots growth by MOVPE (MetalOrganic Vapour Phase Epitaxy). We demonstratethese emitters can generate some quantum state of light thanks to the antibunching experiment.Moreover the spectroscopy of these objects will be deducted by the time resolved spectroscopy. Thepossibility to integrate these sources in ultimate’s size cavity permits to modify the spontaneous rateemission, so the result obtain with metallic cavity permit to observe an acceleration of the spontaneousemission on a wide spectral band. Finally a strong emission modification of the quantum dot’sensemble between 4K and 300K will be presented by using an original way based on the laser effect.

Les systèmes optomécaniques, dans lesquels les vibrations d'un résonateur mécanique sont couplées à un rayonnement électromagnétique, ont permis l'examen de multiples nouveaux effets physiques. Afin d'exploiter pleinement ces phénomènes dans des circuits réalistes et d'obtenir différentes fonctionnalités sur une seule puce, l'intégration des résonateurs optomécaniques est obligatoire. Ici nous proposons une nouvelle approche pour la réalisation de systèmes intégrés et hétérogènes comportant des cavités à cristaux photoniques bidimensionnels au-dessus de guides d'ondes en silicium-sur-isolant. La réponse optomécanique de ces dispositifs est étudiée et atteste d'un couplage optomécanique impliquant à la fois les mécanismes dispersifs et dissipatifs. En contrôlant le couplage optique entre le guide d'onde intégré et le cristal photonique, nous avons pu varier et comprendre la contribution relative de ces couplages. Cette plateforme évolutive permet un contrôle sans précédent sur les mécanismes de couplage optomécanique, avec un avantage potentiel dans des expériences de refroidissement et pour le développement de circuits optomécaniques multi-éléments pour des applications tels que le traitement du signal par effets optomécaniques. / Optomechanical systems, in which the vibrations of a mechanical resonator are coupled to an electromagnetic radiation, have permitted the investigation of a wealth of novel physical effects. To fully exploit these phenomena in realistic circuits and to achieve different functionalities on a single chip, the integration of optomechanical resonators is mandatory. Here, we propose a novel approach to heterogeneously integrated arrays of two-dimensional photonic crystal defect cavities on top of silicon-on-insulator waveguides. The optomechanical response of these devices is investigated and evidences an optomechanical coupling involving both dispersive and dissipative mechanisms. By controlling optical coupling between the waveguide and the photonic crystal, we were able to vary and understand the relative strength of these couplings. This scalable platform allows for unprecedented control on the optomechanical coupling mechanisms, with a potential benefit in cooling experiments, and for the development of multi-element optomechanical circuits in the frame of optomechanically-driven signal-processing applications.

Le transistor est la brique élémentaire des circuits intégrés présents dans tous les appareils électroniques. Années après années l’industrie de la microélectronique a amélioré les performances des circuits intégrés (rapidité, consommation énergétique) en réduisant les dimensions du transistor. De nos jours, en plus de la réduction de la taille du transistor d’autres techniques permettent de soutenir cette croissance: ce sont les « booster » technologiques. Les contraintes mécaniques ou encore le remplacement du Silicium par d’autres matériaux tels que germanium (Ge) et les matériaux semi-conducteurs de type III-V sont des exemples de booster technologiques. Grâce à la modélisation numérique, cette thèse propose d’étudier les effets de booster technologiques sur les performances électriques de la future génération de transistors. / The transistor is the elementary brick of Integrated circuits found in all electronic devices. Years after years the microelectronic industry has enhanced the performances of integrated circuits (speed and energy consumption) by downscaling the transistor. Nowadays besides the transistor’s downscaling, other techniques have been considered to maintain this growth: they are called technological boosters. Mechanical strain or new material, such as germanium (Ge) and III-V semiconductors, to replace Silicon are example of technological boosters. By the means of numerical quantum simulations and modeling, this these work propose a study of the effect of technological boosters on the electric performances of the next generation of transistors.

In dieser Arbeit wurde eine Tandemsolarzelle aus III-V-Halbleitern auf der Gitterkonstanten von InP mit einem neuartigen Tunnelkontakt entwickelt. Für die Entwicklung der monolithischen Präparation wurden insbesondere kritische Hetero-Grenzflächen im Bereich des Tunnelkontaktes mit oberflächensensitiven Messmethoden untersucht. Die Tandemsolarzelle bestand aus Einzelsolarzellen mit Absorberschichten aus InGaAs (E_g=0,73eV) und InGaAsP (E_g=1,03eV), deren Serienverschaltung mit einem Tunnelkontakt erfolgte, der aus einer n-InGaAs- und einer p-GaAsSb-Schicht bestand. Die Halbleiterschichten wurden mit metallorganischer Gasphasenepitaxie (MOCVD) einkristallin auf einem InP(100)-Substrat gitterangepasst präpariert. Insbesondere wurde der Einfluss der Präparation von InGaAs-Oberflächen auf die Schärfe der InGaAs/GaAsSb-Grenzfläche in-situ mit RAS und nach einem kontaminationsfreien Transfer ins UHV mit UPS, XPS und LEED untersucht. Dabei konnten erstmals drei verschiedene Rekonstruktionen der MOCVD-präparierten InGaAs-Oberfläche beobachtet werden, die von der Heiztemperatur abhängig waren: eine As-reiche (4x3)-, eine InGa-reiche (2x4)- und eine ebenfalls InGa-reiche (4x2)/c(8x2)-Rekonstruktion. Danach erfolgte die Untersuchung des Wachstums von dünnen GaAsSb-Schichten auf diesen drei InGaAs-Oberflächen. Anhand des Sb/As-Verhältnisses im GaAsSb konnte die Präparation auf der (4x3)-rekonstruierten Oberfläche als die schlechteste beurteilt werden. Abschließend wurden Tandemsolarzellen mit verschieden dicken Absorberschichten der InGaAsP-Topzelle gefertigt. Der höchste Wirkungsgrad einer hier hergestellten Tandemsolarzelle betrug 7,3% unter einem gefilterten Sonnenspektrum, das eine GaAs-basierte Tandemsolarzelle mit großen Bandlücken (E_g>1,4eV) simulierte. Die Kombination einer solchen Tandemsolarzelle mit der hier entwickelten InGaAs/InGaAsP-Tandemsolarzelle hat das Potential, für konzentriertes Sonnenlicht eine Konversionseffizienz von deutlich über 40% zu erreichen. / A monolithic low band gap tandem solar cell made up of III-V semiconductors lattice matched to InP and including a novel tunnel junction was developed. Critical hetero interfaces were investigated in detail, in particular the ones related to the tunnel diode. The tandem solar cell was composed of single junction cells with InGaAs (E_g=0.73eV) and InGaAsP (E_g=1.03eV) absorber layers. The serial connection of the subcells was realized by using a tunnel junction including n-InGaAs and p-GaAsSb layers. Metal organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) was used to prepare the III-V layers lattice matched on InP(100) substrates. In particular, the influence of the preparation of the InGaAs surface on the sharpness of the InGaAs/GaAsSb interface was investigated in-situ by Reflection Anisotropy Spectroscopy (RAS). After a contamination free transfer to UHV the samples were analyzed by UPS, XPS and LEED. Three different surface reconstructions of MOVPE-prepared InGaAs were determined for the first time: an As-rich (4x3)-, an InGa-rich (2x4) and an also InGa-rich (4x2)/c(8x2)-reconstructed surface. In a second step, the growth of thin GaAsSb layers on the three different InGaAs surfaces was studied. The Sb/As-ratio in the GaAsSb layer indicated that the preparations on the InGa-rich surfaces result in a sharper interface. Finally, tandem solar cells with different thicknesses for the absorber layer of the top cell were produced. The highest efficiency obtained for the tandem solar cell was 7.3%, when measured under a filtered solar spectrum to simulate the operation below a GaAs-based tandem solar cell (E_g>1.4eV). The combination of a high band gap tandem solar cell with the InGaAs/InGaAsP tandem solar cell developed here is estimated to reach under a concentrated solar spectrum a total efficiency of more than 40% after further optimization steps.

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit werden Untersuchungen der Spinrelaxation in epitaktischen GaN-Schichten mit unterschiedlichen Donatorkonzentrationen und Versetzungsdichten mit Hilfe spin- und zeitaufgelöster differentieller Reflektanzspektroskopie präsentiert. Dabei wurden die optischen Anregungsbedingungen sehr sorgfältig gewählt. Neben der genauen Abstimmung der Anregungsenergie, unterstützt durch die Modellierung der differentiellen Reflektanz, wurden insbesondere spektral schmale Laserpulse verwendet. Diese erlauben eine selektive Anregung der untersuchten Übergänge. Es wurden Spinlebensdauern von 30 bis 170~ps bei tiefen Temperaturen für das freie A-Exziton bestimmt. In der Nähe des Metall-Isolator-Übergangs ließ sich eine langsamere Spinrelaxation als für schwächer dotierte Proben nachweisen. Die längsten beobachteten Spinrelaxationszeiten zeigen freistehende GaN-Schichten hoher Materialqualität mit sehr geringen Versetzungsdichten. In der Literatur besteht eine kategorische Unterteilung der Ergebnisse in lange elektronische Spinlebensdauern bis in den Nanosekundenbereich, erhalten mit Kerr-Messungen, und extrem kurze exzitonische Spinrelaxation in Reflektanz-Experimenten im (Sub-)Pikosenkundenbereich. Dieses Bild wird hier nicht bestätigt. Die beobachteten Spinrelaxationszeiten liegen eineinhalb bis zweieinhalb Größenordnungen über Ergebnissen, von denen bisher mit der hier verwendeten Methode berichtet wurde. Es wird gezeigt, dass die Beobachtungen extrem kurzer Spinrelaxationszeiten an anderer Stelle eine Folge der optischen Anregungsbedingungen sind. Die Verwendung sehr kurzer und damit spektral breiter Laserpulse, die eine selektive Exziton-Anregung verbieten, führt zu einem deutlich anderen zeitlichen Verhalten und stark verfälschten Ergebnissen. Diese Beobachtung löst den scheinbaren Widerspruch zwischen den beiden Ergebnisgruppen in der Literatur auf und bildet die Grundlage für weiterführende Untersuchungen. / In this work, an investigation of spin relaxation in GaN epitaxial layers with different doping concentrations and dislocation densities is presented. The measurements were carried out by the means of spin- and time-resolved differential reflectance spectroscopy. The conditions of optical excitation were chosen with special care. In particular, spectrally narrow laser pulses were used to achieve selective excitation of the examined transitions in addition to the precise adjustment of the excitation energy, supported by the modeling of the differential reflectance. The spin relaxation times obtained for the free A exciton at low temperatures are in the range of 30 to 170 ps. In the proximity of the metal insulator transition, a slower spin relaxation was observed than for lower doping concentrations. The longest spin relaxation times were found in high quality, free-standing GaN layers with very low dislocation densities. Existing results in the literature can be strictly grouped into long electronic spin lifetimes of up to a few nanoseconds, obtained with Kerr rotation, and extremely short spin relaxation in the (sub)picosecond range, measured with reflectance experiments. This picture cannot be confirmed here. The spin relaxation times observed here lie 1.5 to 2.5 orders of magnitude above the values previously reported using the same experimental method. It is shown that the instances of extremely fast spin relaxation are caused by the properties of the optical excitation. The use of ultra-short and thus spectrally broad laser pulses, which prohibits the selective excitation of excitons, leads to a significantly different temporal behavior and strongly distorted results. This finding elucidates the apparent conflict between the two groups of results and forms the basis for further investigations.