Dissertation (Ph.D.)--Auburn University,2008. / Abstract. Vita. Includes bibliographic references (p.141-157).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007. / The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on September 4, 2007) Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Utilizing primary amines as alkyl coupling partners has garnered attention in recent years due to their widespread availability, facile preparation and purification, and presence in a variety of common building blocks. The reemergence of Katritzky salts has enabled deaminative alkylation and arylation of alpha primary and alpha secondary amines. The Rovis group has developed deaminative conditions for alpha tertiary amines utilizing redox-active imines to generate tertiary carbon-centered radicals. Herein, we couple this tertiary alkyl radical to haloarenes to generate benzylic quaternary centers, a common motif in pharmaceuticals and natural products. We then applied this methodology in the realm of isotopic exchange to generate 15N-primary amines from their naturally occurring 14N-analogues. By activating alpha primary and alpha secondary amines to Katritzky pyridinium salts and alpha tertiary amines to redox-active imines, we can engage primary alkyl amines in a late-stage isotopic exchange with complete and selective isotopic labeling.

Ces travaux de thèse portent sur le développement de catalyseurs à base de ligands carbène N-hétérocycliques dérivés de fer et de nickel, deux métaux de transition abondants, pour les réactions de hydrosilylation et de borylation. Le premier chapitre porte sur les travaux réalisés à l’aide de complexes de fer du type [Cp(NHC)Fe(CO)₂][X] (X = I, PF₆) possédant des ligands de type benzimidazole ou imidazole et leur évaluation en hydrosilylation de dérivés carbonylés. Le deuxième chapitre traite de l’utilisation de complexes demi-sandwichs de nickel du type CpNi(NHC) en hydrosilylation d’aldéhydes, de cétones, d’aldimines et de cétimines. Enfin le troisième chapitre est consacré à la réaction de borylation catalysée par des complexes de nickel demi-sandwich CpNi(triazole)X et des complexes de nickel possédant deux ligands chélatants anioniques de type carbene N-hétérocyclique fonctionnalisé par un bras amido. / The research work described in this manuscript has for main objective the development of new homogeneous catalytic systems based on N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) iron and nickel complexes for hydrosilyation and borylation reactions. The first chapter describes the use of [Cp(NHC)Fe(CO)₂][X] (X = I, PF₆) complexes bearing benzimidazole or imidazole NHC type ligands for hydrosilylation of benzaldehyde and acetophenone. In a second chapter, we have shown that half-sandwich NHC-nickel complexes in the presence of a catalytic amount of NaHBEt3 can be efficient catalysts for the reduction of aldehydes, ketones, aldimines and ketimines in the presence of diphenylsilane. In the last chapter, two new series of non-classical NHC-nickel triazole complexes had been developed: (i) one series with half sandwich NHC-nickel triazole complexes and (ii) another one based on chelating anionic amido-functionalized N-heterocyclic carbene nickel complexes. The two series of complexes were then evaluated in catalytic borylation cross coupling reaction.

Dans une première partie est décrite une réaction de Ugi-Smiles avec des équivalents d'ammoniaque ainsi que des post-condensations à cette réaction. Dans une seconde partie, des nouvelles réactions de Passerini entre des isonitriles, des phosphonates d'acyle et différents partenaires acides ont été décrites. Dans une dernière partie, une synthèse originale de cétène-imines basée sur une séquence Nef-Perkow ainsi que des applications en synthèse hétérocyclique sont présentées.

Neste trabalho foram sintetizados complexos de cobre(II) com derivados imínicos da isatina, incluindo isatinas bromadas semelhantes a compostos encontrados em gastrópodes, a fim de compará-los com o composto já produzido e investigado [Cu(isaepy)], complexo de cobre(II) com base de Schiff feita a partir da isatina e 2-aminoetilpiridina. A isatina é um oxindol produzido em algumas plantas, também encontrado no tecido de mamíferos, com propriedades antitumorais naturais. Isatinas bromadas foram previamente constatadas como mais citotóxicas frente a células tumorais do que a isatina sem substituições. O objetivo principal foi verificar se a presença de bromo nos compostos análogos ao [Cu(isaepy)] levaria a um aumento da atividade antitumoral, assim como maior interação com DNA, alvo usual de metalofármacos. Depois de sintetizados, os compostos foram caracterizados por análise elementar (CHN), espectroscopia no infravermelho, espectroscopia UV/Vis e EPR. Foram feitos testes de citotoxicidade pelo método MTT com células de sarcoma uterino (MES-SA e MES-AS/Dx5, esta última resistente a doxorrubicina), adenocarcinoma cervical (HeLa) e células não cancerosas de fibroblasto humano P4. Adicionalmente, foram feitos testes de interação com DNA por UV/Vis e dicroísmo circular, além de testes de clivagem de DNA plasmidial. De modo geral, foi demonstrado que a simetria tetragonal em torno do cobre, determinada pelo EPR, é importante para a citotoxicidade dos complexos, que dessa forma podem se intercalar ao DNA e impedir sua replicação, por acabar distorcendo a hélice, e pela habilidade de realizarem clivagem oxidativa das fitas. [Cu(isaepy)] e seus análogos bromados demonstraram uma atividade citotóxica muito parecida, assim como grau de interação e clivagem com DNA. Conclui-se que, embora a presença de bromo nos análogos de [Cu(isaepy)] não levem a um aumento de atividade antitumoral, como observado em ligantes correlatos livres, nossos estudos apontam para diferentes fontes naturais (animal ou vegetal) para obtenção de precursores de novos compostos antitumorais. / In the present work, copper(II) complexes were synthesized with isatin derived imine ligands, including brominated oxindoles similar to compounds found in gastropods, in order to compare their reactivity with that of [Cu(isaepy)], a Schiff base-copper(II) complex already investigated, obtained with the precursors isatin and 2-aminoethylpyridine. Isatin is a natural oxindole extracted from plants, and also found in mammal tissue, with antitumor properties. Brominated isatins were previously described as much more cytotoxic, towards tumor cells, than unsubstituted isatin. The aim of this work was to verify if the presence of brome in analogue [Cu(isaepy)] compounds would increase their antitumor activity, along with higher DNA interaction, an usual target for metallodrugs. The copper(II) complexes were synthesized and then characterized through elemental analyses (CHN), infrared, UV/Vis and EPR spectroscopies. Cytotoxicity tests were carried out using MTT assay with cells lines MES-SA e MES-SA/Dx5 (uterine sarcome, sensitive and resistent to doxorubicin), HeLa (cervical adenocarcinoma) and non-tumor cells, human fibroblast P4. Additionally, DNA interaction experiments were carried out through UV/Vis spectroscopy and circular dichroism, and at last, DNA cleavage experiments with the studied complexes. In general, it was shown that a tetragonal symmetry around copper, shown by EPR, is very important to the complexes toxicity, since in that way they are able to intercalate DNA, and prevent its replication, as a consequence of double helix distortion, and eventual oxidative cleavage. [Cu(isaepy)] and its brominated analogues demonstrated a very similar cytotoxicity towards cancer cells, as well as quite same level of DNA interaction and cleavage. Although the presence of brome did not increase significantly their antitumor activity, as verified with the free isatin derivatives, our studies pointed to different natural sources to obtain precursors for such new antitumor compounds.

Nos últimos anos, questões ambientais têm merecido destaque na mídia nacional e internacional. A química tem uma grande participação nos dias atuais com os inúmeros produtos fundamentais à humanidade. A sua presença pode ser destacada desde diversos combustíveis aos mais complexos medicamentos. As reações de síntese orgânica devem ser guiadas por novas práticas mais sustentáveis. Nesse campo, tem-se o conceito da Green Chemistry ou Química Verde, que consiste na estratégia em desenvolver metodologias e processos que usem e gerem a menor quantidade de materiais tóxicos e/ou inflamáveis ou reaproveitáveis. Com o intuito de contribuir com a Química Verde, estudou-se a síntese de iminas que consistiu da primeira etapa do processo de aminação livre de solventes orgânicos e apresentaram rendimentos superiores a 95,0 %; gem-dicloroaziridinas foram preparadas a partir de inserção de diclorocarbeno em iminas em condições mínimas de solvente orgânico, utilizando como catalisador o KF/Al2O3 e com rendimentos superiores a 98,0%. As gem-dicloroaziridinas foram convertidas em amidas por hidrolise, na ausência de solvente e com rendimentos superiores a 98,0%. Dentro do conceito de Química Verde foram preparadas as seis iminas: N-benzilfenilmetanoimina, N-fenil-furilmetanoimina, N-fenilfenilmetanoimina, N-fenil-(4-metoxifenil)-metanoimina, N-benzil-(4-metoxifenil)metanoimina e N-furfurilfurilmetanoimina; duas gem-dicloroaziridinas: 2,2-dicloro-1,3-difenilaziridina e 1-benzil-2,2-dicloro-3-fenilaziridina e duas amidas: cloro-fenilacetanilida e N-benzil-cloro-fenilacetamida. / For the last years Environmental issues have deserved featured in the National and International media. Chemistry has had great participation on currently days with countless products which are fundamental to humanity. Its presence can be detached from various fuels to the most complex drugs.The organic synthesis reactions should be guided by more sustainable new practices. In this field, the Green Chemistry concept or (Química Verde) strategy which aims to develop methodology and and/or processes which use and generate the minimum quality of toxic inflammable material. With the purpose of contribute to green chemistry, we studied the synthesis of imines which consisted of the first stage of the process of amination, free of organic solvents and have yields higher than 95%; gem-dichloroaziridine were prepared from the imines insertion dichlorocarbene in a minimum of organic solvent conditions, using as catalyst KF/Al2O3 and yields higher than 98%. The gem-dichloroaziridines were converted to amides by hydrolysis in absence of solvent and yields higher than 98.0%. Within the concept of Green Chemistry were prepared six imines: N-benzyl- phenylmethanimine, N-phenyl-2- furylmethanimine, N-phenyl- phenylmethanimine, N-phenyl-(4-methoxyphenyl)methanimine, N-benzyl-(4-methoxyphenyl)metha-nimine,N-(2-furylmethyl)-2-furylmethanimine; two gem-dichloroaziridinas: 2,2-dichloro-1,3-diphenyla-ziridine and 1-benzyl-2,2-dichloro-3-phenylaziridine and two amides: chlorophenylacetanilide and N-benzyl-chloro-phenylacetamide.

Essa tese consiste na preparação de novos compostos de coordenação de Re, Ga e In como potenciais agentes de diagnóstico. Para a síntese desses complexos, foram propostos novos ligantes tiossemicarbazonas, semicarbazonas e iminas derivadas do 2-hidroxi-3-clorometil-5-metilbenzaldeído, o qual foi preparado a partir do reagente comercial 2,6-bis(hidroximetil)-4-metilfenol com rendimento de 76% após três etapas. Os novos ligantes foram obtidos em duas etapas, N-alquilação e condensação, com rendimentos médios de 60 a 75%, respectivamente. Foram obtidos ligantes tridentados, pentadentados e hexadentados, que podem ser empregados na síntese de uma diversidade de complexos, mostrando a versatilidade do reagente proposto. Os ligantes tridentados não se mostraram apropriados para a obtenção de complexos estáveis de ReV, para os quais a caracterização foi dificultosa. A tiossemicarbazona/piridil, como ligante potencialmente pentadentado, formou complexo com ReV com baixo rendimento e possivelmente instável nas condições estudadas. Os ligantes semi e tiossemicarbazonas hexadentados proporcionaram a formação de complexos com GaIII e InIII, com rendimentos de 60 a 90% e de satisfatória estabilidade. O complexo de GaIII hexacoordenado com a bis(semicarbazona) pôde ser obtido na forma neutra zwitteriônica e na forma catiônica como um sal de nitrato, a partir de [Ga(acac)3] e [Ga(NO3)3], respectivamente. Esse mesmo ligante formou complexo neutro zwitteriônico com InIII, quando empregou-se o precursor [In(acac)3] e uma possível mistura de produtos ao empregar-se o [InCl3]. O congênere radioativo do complexo a bis(semicarbazona) foi obtido com rendimentos quantitativos na marcação a partir do 67GaCl3 em 15 minutos e à temperatura ambiente, apresentando razoável estabilidade in vitro (por meio de ensaios na presença de PBS, apo-transferrina e soro de sangue humano) e in vivo (pela análise de sangue e urina após administração em camundongos normais). O estudo de biodistribuição em camundongos demonstrou a captação principal nos intestinos e fígado, relacionando-se com a lipofilicidade (log P 1,40) do composto. Nas condições estudadas, não foi possível obter os radiocomplexos de 67Ga com as bis(tiossemicarbazonas) com rendimentos e pureza satisfatórios. No entanto, obteve-se o radiocomplexo de 111In com a bis(tiossemicarbazona), com grupos metila como substituintes no grupo N, com rendimento quantitativo e alta pureza, progredindo para os ensaios de estabilidade e biodistribuição. Sobre a estabilidade, o radiocomplexo de 111In com a bis(tiossemicarbazona) se mostrou menos estável que o complexo de 67Ga com a bis(semicarbazona), porém com similar comportamento na biodistribuição sendo captado, preferencialmente, no intestino (via de excreção) e no fígado (via metabólica). Ambos complexos são lipofílicos, no entanto, o 111In (log P 2,66) apresenta melhor saída da corrente sanguínea. Os novos radiocomplexos se mostraram promissores para estudos futuros buscando melhoria molecular (por questões de solubilidade, por exemplo) e especificidade via bioconjugação. / In this thesis, a design of new Re, Ga and In coordination compounds is proposed. The ligands semicarbazones, thiosemicarbazones and imines could be prepared from 3-(chloromethyl)-2-hydroxy-5-methylbenzaldehyde as initial material. This aldehyde is not available commercially, but it could be obtained in three steps from 2,6-bis(hydroxymethyl)-4-methylphenol in 76 % yield. Using N-alkylation and condensation reactions, the ligands were prepared in 60 to 75 % yields. A series of tridentate, pentadentate and hexadentate ligands were designed to different metal ions, showing the versatility of the chloride/aldehyde reagent. Unfortunately, the ReV complexes were not fully characterized as stable complexes. Semi and thiosemicarbazones, H4bsc and H4btsc, formed GaIII and InIII complexes, as hexadentate ligands in good yields (60-90 %). The hexacoordinated bis(semicarbazone) Ga complex, [Ga(HbscPh)], was obtained as a zwitterion neutral compound and as a cationic form of a nitrate salt, from [Ga(acac)3] and [Ga(NO3)3], respectively. The same ligand, H4bscPh, reacted with [In(acac)3], resulting a zwitterion neutral In complex, [In(HbscPh)], but using [InCl3] a mixture of products was observed. The radioactive congener complex [67Ga(HbscPh)] was obtained in quantitative yields from 67GaCl3 (15 min, at room temperature) therefore the complex presented considerable stability in in vitro (PBS, apo-tranferrin, human blood serum assays) and in vivo (blood and urine after the administration to normal mice). The biodistribuition assays resulted in liver and instestines uptake, which could be related with the lipophilicity of the complex (log P 1,44). In experimental conditions, bis(thiossemicarbazones) 67Ga radiocomplexes were not obtained in reasonable yield and purity. However the radiocomplex [111In(HbtscMeMe)] was obtained in quantitative yields and in high purity (15 min, at room temperature), justifying stability assays. The 111In complex was less stable than 67Ga complex, though the similar uptake. The both complexes are lipophilic, but [111In(HbtscMeMe)] (log P 2,66) presented better blood clearance. The results were promising and new studies toward structural optimizing are proposed, in this way, water soluble complexes and specific agents (coupling to biomolecule) could be prepared.

Essa tese consiste na preparação de novos compostos de coordenação de Re, Ga e In como potenciais agentes de diagnóstico. Para a síntese desses complexos, foram propostos novos ligantes tiossemicarbazonas, semicarbazonas e iminas derivadas do 2-hidroxi-3-clorometil-5-metilbenzaldeído, o qual foi preparado a partir do reagente comercial 2,6-bis(hidroximetil)-4-metilfenol com rendimento de 76% após três etapas. Os novos ligantes foram obtidos em duas etapas, N-alquilação e condensação, com rendimentos médios de 60 a 75%, respectivamente. Foram obtidos ligantes tridentados, pentadentados e hexadentados, que podem ser empregados na síntese de uma diversidade de complexos, mostrando a versatilidade do reagente proposto. Os ligantes tridentados não se mostraram apropriados para a obtenção de complexos estáveis de ReV, para os quais a caracterização foi dificultosa. A tiossemicarbazona/piridil, como ligante potencialmente pentadentado, formou complexo com ReV com baixo rendimento e possivelmente instável nas condições estudadas. Os ligantes semi e tiossemicarbazonas hexadentados proporcionaram a formação de complexos com GaIII e InIII, com rendimentos de 60 a 90% e de satisfatória estabilidade. O complexo de GaIII hexacoordenado com a bis(semicarbazona) pôde ser obtido na forma neutra zwitteriônica e na forma catiônica como um sal de nitrato, a partir de [Ga(acac)3] e [Ga(NO3)3], respectivamente. Esse mesmo ligante formou complexo neutro zwitteriônico com InIII, quando empregou-se o precursor [In(acac)3] e uma possível mistura de produtos ao empregar-se o [InCl3]. O congênere radioativo do complexo a bis(semicarbazona) foi obtido com rendimentos quantitativos na marcação a partir do 67GaCl3 em 15 minutos e à temperatura ambiente, apresentando razoável estabilidade in vitro (por meio de ensaios na presença de PBS, apo-transferrina e soro de sangue humano) e in vivo (pela análise de sangue e urina após administração em camundongos normais). O estudo de biodistribuição em camundongos demonstrou a captação principal nos intestinos e fígado, relacionando-se com a lipofilicidade (log P 1,40) do composto. Nas condições estudadas, não foi possível obter os radiocomplexos de 67Ga com as bis(tiossemicarbazonas) com rendimentos e pureza satisfatórios. No entanto, obteve-se o radiocomplexo de 111In com a bis(tiossemicarbazona), com grupos metila como substituintes no grupo N, com rendimento quantitativo e alta pureza, progredindo para os ensaios de estabilidade e biodistribuição. Sobre a estabilidade, o radiocomplexo de 111In com a bis(tiossemicarbazona) se mostrou menos estável que o complexo de 67Ga com a bis(semicarbazona), porém com similar comportamento na biodistribuição sendo captado, preferencialmente, no intestino (via de excreção) e no fígado (via metabólica). Ambos complexos são lipofílicos, no entanto, o 111In (log P 2,66) apresenta melhor saída da corrente sanguínea. Os novos radiocomplexos se mostraram promissores para estudos futuros buscando melhoria molecular (por questões de solubilidade, por exemplo) e especificidade via bioconjugação. / In this thesis, a design of new Re, Ga and In coordination compounds is proposed. The ligands semicarbazones, thiosemicarbazones and imines could be prepared from 3-(chloromethyl)-2-hydroxy-5-methylbenzaldehyde as initial material. This aldehyde is not available commercially, but it could be obtained in three steps from 2,6-bis(hydroxymethyl)-4-methylphenol in 76 % yield. Using N-alkylation and condensation reactions, the ligands were prepared in 60 to 75 % yields. A series of tridentate, pentadentate and hexadentate ligands were designed to different metal ions, showing the versatility of the chloride/aldehyde reagent. Unfortunately, the ReV complexes were not fully characterized as stable complexes. Semi and thiosemicarbazones, H4bsc and H4btsc, formed GaIII and InIII complexes, as hexadentate ligands in good yields (60-90 %). The hexacoordinated bis(semicarbazone) Ga complex, [Ga(HbscPh)], was obtained as a zwitterion neutral compound and as a cationic form of a nitrate salt, from [Ga(acac)3] and [Ga(NO3)3], respectively. The same ligand, H4bscPh, reacted with [In(acac)3], resulting a zwitterion neutral In complex, [In(HbscPh)], but using [InCl3] a mixture of products was observed. The radioactive congener complex [67Ga(HbscPh)] was obtained in quantitative yields from 67GaCl3 (15 min, at room temperature) therefore the complex presented considerable stability in in vitro (PBS, apo-tranferrin, human blood serum assays) and in vivo (blood and urine after the administration to normal mice). The biodistribuition assays resulted in liver and instestines uptake, which could be related with the lipophilicity of the complex (log P 1,44). In experimental conditions, bis(thiossemicarbazones) 67Ga radiocomplexes were not obtained in reasonable yield and purity. However the radiocomplex [111In(HbtscMeMe)] was obtained in quantitative yields and in high purity (15 min, at room temperature), justifying stability assays. The 111In complex was less stable than 67Ga complex, though the similar uptake. The both complexes are lipophilic, but [111In(HbtscMeMe)] (log P 2,66) presented better blood clearance. The results were promising and new studies toward structural optimizing are proposed, in this way, water soluble complexes and specific agents (coupling to biomolecule) could be prepared.

The development of enantioselective reaction methodology has been at the forefront of research in both academic and industrial research laboratories due to the importance of chiral molecules in biological systems. An emerging area of research in the development of enantioselective reaction methodology has been the development of organocatalytic reactions. Organocatalysis, the use of small, chiral organic molecules as catalysts, has the advantage over traditional Lewis acid catalysis in that the reactions in general produce less toxic by-products. One recent breakthrough in the development of enantioselective methodology has been the development of chiral phosphoric acids as organocatalysts. Chiral phosphoric acids have been shown to be excellent catalysts for a wide variety of reactions. In this thesis chiral phosphoric acid-catalyzed enantioselective reaction methodologies have been developed for the addition of sulfonamides and indoles to imines. The development of Bronsted acid-catalyzed amidation of imines allows for an expedient route for the synthesis of N,N-aminals, which have been incorporated into a wide variety of biologically active compounds. Initial studies were undertaken to determine the practicality of a Bronsted acid-catalyzed method for the addition of amides to N-Boc protected imines. Over 20 achiral Bronsted acids were screened, and it was found that phenylphosphinic acid and trifluoromethanesulfinimide were both excellent catalysts for the addition of amides to a variety of imines giving the respective products in excellent yield. The methodology was extended to the development of an enantioselective method for the addition of sulfonamides to imines. It was found that a chiral phosphoric acid derived from the VAPOL ligand was suitable for this purpose. The developed methodology is capable of tolerating a wide variety of functional groups allowing for the preparation of the N, N-aminal products in excellent yield and enantioselectivities. An enantioselective phosphoric acid-catalyzed aza-Friedel-Crafts reaction between N-benzylindoles derivatives and N-benzoyl protected imines has been developed. A catalyst derived from the BINOL backbone was found to be the optimum catalyst for the enantioselective transformation. The developed methodology was capable of tolerating a wide variety of functional groups and provides an expedient route for the synthesis of chiral 3-indolylmethanamines.