The language of schooling, a register closely linked to academic success, poses challenges for young pupils. These challenges are greater for immigrant and dialectal pupils who are expected to encode the register in question in a second language (L2) and a second dialect (D2) respectively. While the linguistic challenges facing immigrant and dialectal pupils have been extensively researched, those facing learners lying at the intersection of immigrant and dialectal pupils have not as yet received attention. The latter are immigrant pupils immersed in bidialectal communities, that is, communities where communication is performed through a standard and a non-standard variety of language. These pupils are confronted with the comparatively greater challenge of operating in the second dialect of a second language (L2:D2). Addressing a gap in research, this study sought to examine the school-based linguistic challenges facing L2:D2 learners, specifically as these manifest themselves in writing. To this end, a mixed-methods design was employed. One hundred immigrant and 76 non-immigrant pupils participated in the study, all in their final year of primary school. The latter served as a reference group. Data were collected mainly via writing and editing tasks. Interviews with pupils and teachers, together with a small questionnaire, provided supplementary information. Cyprus, a bidialectal country currently hosting an increasing immigrant population, provided the setting for this study. The texts produced by immigrant pupils contained unconventional forms and structures relating to register learning, L2 learning and D2 learning. Traces of L2:D2 learning were also detected. It was found that immigrant pupils - including the very early-arrived ones - underperformed in comparison with their Cypriot counterparts, not only in the language-specific aspects of the register (e.g. immigrants used more dialectal forms in their texts than Cypriots), but also in the non-language-specific ones (e.g. more immigrants than Cypriots assumed common ground with the reader). This performance gap cast light on a number of 'hidden' extralinguistic factors undermining immigrants' school-based written production: pupils' sociocultural circumstances, their 'outsiderness' in relation to the dominant community and the prevailing national ideology. These extralinguistic factors shift the attention away from L2 learning, a linguistic factor often portrayed as the primary source of immigrant pupils' language underperformance. This study contributed to the understanding of the construct 'immigrant pupil' by exposing its multifaceted and context-specific nature. Also, it illuminated an unexplored area, namely, the interplay between second language acquisition and second dialect acquisition, while informing educational policy and practice.

The family reunification provision in U.S. immigration laws allows foreign-born children of immigrants to enter the U.S. and attend American schools. The total number of school years completed by immigrant children, however, is affected by their age at arrival. Age at arrival also affects the percentage of schooling that is attained in the U.S. This implies that immigrants with more U.S. schooling will earn more than other immigrants, holding total education constant, as long as the returns to U.S. schooling are greater than the returns to foreign schooling. Using data from the 1980 and 1990 Census, I find a negative relationship between age at arrival and education for Mexican, European and Pacific Islander and other immigrants that arrive shortly after the start of the first grade. Mexican immigrants as a whole, however, lose tile greatest amount of education from delayed entry. Estimates of the returns to American schooling indicate that those with at least a high school diploma benefit from additional years in U.S. schools. However, the added tax revenue from the increased earnings is not always greater than the cost of additional years of American schooling. Only for Mexican immigrants is it the case that the tax revenues outweigh the fiscal costs of more American education.

Despite calls by U.S. researchers and policymakers for more teachers of color, supported by research documenting the significant social, emotional, and academic benefits of having same-race and same-ethnicity teachers, teaching remains an overwhelmingly White profession, even in light of demographic shifts rendering children of color the numeric majority in U.S. pre/schools. Relatedly, even as over one-fourth of children in the U.S. are immigrants, immigrant and transmigrant teachers have been marginalized in teacher education. Seeking to address this problem from a political-ideological paradigmatic perspective, this study sought to learn from transmigrant teachers’ negotiations of identities and practices. Rejecting essentialized notions of immigrant teachers/communities and focusing on Chinese transmigrant teachers teaching Chinese immigrants and children of immigrants, it sought to understand how they negotiated their teacher identities and pedagogical practices in light of occupational, geographical, and migrational intersections of identities and experiences. Further, it sought to document how these were enacted in early childhood public school classrooms. Situated in New York City, home to the largest Chinese and Chinese-American population of any city outside Asia, this collective case study centered the voices, identities, and experiences of three Chinese transmigrant early childhood teachers via Thirdspace theory, bridging identity, and transnational funds of knowledge. Doing so accounted for their individuality and collectivity. Analytically, • Thirdspace theory was used to map how they reconciled transnational identities, experiences, and pedagogical practices in the classroom; • bridging identity helped deepen understandings of how they constructed a professional/occupational identity influenced by, but not limited to, past biographical experiences; and • transnational funds of knowledge epitomized their lived experiences resulting from transnational navigations and/or belonging to transnational communities, capturing the complex flow of knowledges that characterized their experiences and pedagogies. Findings shed light onto the power and potential of Chinese transmigrant early childhood teachers in the education of Chinese immigrant children. Implications underscore the need for teacher education to learn from the experiences of international teacher candidates, recognizing how they may serve as role models for all students while improving the outcomes and school experiences of immigrant students, leveraging the simultaneity of experiences, identities, and experiences in the construction of Thirdspace classrooms.

“Undocumented Youth” is a socio-legal history of Latinx child migration to and within the United States between 1937 and 1986. By drawing on archival collections from across the country, the dissertation analyzes a crucial missing dimension of Mexican and Central American (im)migration history that adult-centric histories have overlooked or obscured. The dissertation uncovers a legal system of migrant exclusion that relied on various legal and quasi-legal forms of domestic restrictions and removal that combined with federal policies governing international migration. Under this broad legal apparatus, “border crossing” included migration from Mexico into the U.S. and domestic migration across state lines. Federal and state officials denied ethnic-Mexican border-crossing youth, with and without U.S. citizenship, legal rights and access to welfare state benefits, especially public education. This hybrid system of restriction and removal resulted in multiple injuries to children and families, including migrant minors’ exploitation on farms, educational deprivation, detention, and deportation beginning in the 1940s. The broad racialization of the criminal and invading “alien” of all ages at mid-century spurred ambivalent legal and political responses from officials in power that ranged from humanitarian to punitive. As grassroots activists and sympathetic policymakers found ways to intervene on behalf of unaccompanied and accompanied ethnic-Mexican migrant children, the state persistently and creatively enacted new draconian measures and refashioned well-meaning polices to reinforce the power and reach of the domestic removal apparatus. In response to the rights deprivations and welfare state exclusion imposed on the nation’s migrant Mexican youth, child welfare and migrants’ rights activists devised a series of local welfare programs in the 1940s and ‘50s to restore border-crossing minors’ “right to childhood” based on middle-class norms of innocence, play, and education. These local efforts led ultimately to federal reform, specifically the establishment of the Migrant Education Program (MEP) in 1965 during the War on Poverty. However, the MEP’s introduction of a unique data collection technology in schools jeopardized the privacy of undocumented youth and their parents, making them vulnerable to the criminal justice system and federal immigration enforcement. This data collection helped transform public schools into school-to-deportation pipelines. Concurrently, undocumented Mexican and Central American youth were forced to endure different forms of educational deprivation and rights violations in carceral and quasi-carceral sites, in immigrant detention and on commercial farms. The tensions and contestations over rights provoked by child migrants with and without U.S. citizenship after 1937 led to legal experiments, liberal pro-migrant federal policies like the MEP, and landmark court decisions, such as Plyler v. Doe (1982), that provided the rhetorical and policy foundations necessary to construct modern, child-centered mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion. These legal experiments and court battles also increasingly defined national U.S. citizenship as the sole grounds for claiming rights, eclipsing social and local citizenship as modes of belonging. As a result, they hardened the distinctions between the citizen and the noncitizen migrant. In the 1970s, a legal regime with strict noncitizen restrictions emerged that no longer collapsed all border-crossing minors into a single discursive and legal category. By the late-twentieth century only minors and adults without federal U.S. citizenship were identified and marginalized as “migrants,” marking a sharp departure from the category’s previous legal and social meanings.

This research aimed to understand the literacy and language experiences of a group of immigrant girls in an inner city school. It takes a socio-cultural approach to literacy and emphasizes the intersections between home, school and community. Eight weeks were spent in the school with learners and teachers, guided by the principles of ethnographic research. The data was analysed using a combination of methods. Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) was used to identify patterns and themes in accordance with community theory. Narrative Analysis was used as a means to foreground the voices of the research participants in sharing their experiences. The research found that literacy and language practices do not exist in isolation, but rather as part of a complex and distinctive layering of communities: the community in the suburb where the school is, the immigrant community, the school community and community of learners in the school. In addition the ways in which literacy and language are used, are attached to different relations of power within different communities. The study raises questions about the way in which schools operate as part of or distinct from the communities in which they are located.

The field of early childhood education and care (ECEC) is facing one of the most rapid changes as one in four children under the age of six in the United States are immigrant children or children of immigrants (Woods, Hanson, Saxton, & Simms, 2016). With this demographic shift along with the current political climate towards immigrants, teaching immigrant children has become more complex and challenging than ever before. Further, the evidence in the existing literature consistently reflects immigrant children’s narratives of their experiences in schools as alienated, excluded, and othered, attesting to this challenging task for educators (e.g. Igoa, 1995; Kirova, 2001). Amid these challenges, what stories are there yet to be told when immigrants with such experiences and backgrounds become teachers and teach immigrant students? Grounded in a funds of knowledge (Moll, Amanti, Neff, & González, 1992) and borderlands (Anzaldúa, 1987) framework, this study seeks to bring the voices of immigrant teachers to the forefront and to examine their immigration and schooling experiences, first as immigrant students and now teaching and caring for young immigrant students and families in ECEC settings. Using the methods of multi-case study, I highlight the intimate and nuanced teaching and learning experiences of immigrant teachers by delving deeper into a borderland space, where their lives mesh with their immigrant students and their families. Looking deeply at the experiences of immigrant teachers straddling between multiple worlds, remembering being newcomers while working as welcomers, proposes that we re-think and ask new questions about the complex realities of immigrants in schooling. This work highlights the heart of teaching and caring for young immigrants as contingent upon understanding the nuances of their daily experiences as border crossers within the self, among others, and in multiple cultural worlds.

This study explores the schooling experiences in South Africa of migrant children from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Migration has been an area of interest within political, social and academic circles. In recent times, studies have been and are being conducted on issues on migration especially with the aim of exploring migrants’ experiences and challenges. This study addresses the experiences of migrant children from the Democratic Republic of Congo in schools in South Africa and their social identity as migrants. It aims to bring these issues into focus and to encourage further research and debate with the aim of finding ways of ensuring better schooling experiences for these migrant children. As its objective, and in line with the aspirations of inclusion and diversity of the present system of education in South Africa, this study: enables an insight into the Congolese migrant children’s school experiences and the resulting challenges for schooling in South Africa, provides an avenue to explore these challenges and experiences in the light of educational policies in place in South Africa and how these challenges affect the children’s education, raises critical issues regarding inclusion and diversity in the South African educational context, and contributes to ongoing debate, awareness and research interest in the area of study. The study addresses the extent to which the inclusive schooling system in South Africa does in reality include these migrant children. This study is situated within the critical paradigm and engages Social Identity Theory as its theoretical framework. It employs a case study methodology to explore the schooling experiences of migrant children from the Democratic Republic of Congo. The theoretical framework as well as the methodology used in this study makes provision for a critical engagement in the analyses of these experiences. / Thesis (M.Ed.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Edgewood, 2010.

This study investigated Taiwanese preschool teachers' awareness of cultural diversity of new immigrant children and how this awareness influences their educational practices. In particular, this study focused on the cultural awareness of preschool teachers who work with young Taiwanese children whose mothers are immigrants from Southeast Asia. This study used quantitative and qualitative methods. One hundred seventy-two Taiwanese preschool teachers from the different geographic areas of Taiwan participated in the study. Data were collected through the use of the Cultural Diversity Awareness Inventory (CDAI) survey and participant interviews. Research results of the study revealed: (a) most Taiwanese preschool teachers had an awareness of cultural diversity, but their perceptions of how to create a multicultural environment need to be improved; (b) Taiwanese preschool teachers' personal experiences with children from different cultures were more associated with their cultural awareness than their ages and educational levels; (c) Geographic location was the factor affecting preschool teachers' awareness of cultural diversity and educational practices. This study is informative to the understanding of Taiwanese preschool teachers' awareness of cultural diversity and the implications of this awareness for classroom practice. In addition, multicultural perspectives of the Taiwan society toward immigrant families and children can benefit from the findings of this study. Future research should include the cultural needs of new immigrant children and the implementation of practices for educating new immigrant children.

Hung Mong-ping. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 163-173). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / ABSTRACT (English version) --- p.i / ABSTRACT (Chinese version) --- p.ii / ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS --- p.iii / TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.iv / LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES --- p.viii / Chapter CHAPTER 1 --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Chapter CHAPTER 2 --- LITERATURE REVIEW --- p.4 / Chapter 2.1 --- Studies on the Schooling and Social Adaptation of Young NACs from Mainland China --- p.4 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Difficulties in Finding a School Place --- p.5 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Enrollment in Lower Grades with Younger Classmates --- p.7 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Problems in the Learning of Languages --- p.9 / Chapter 2.1.4 --- Relationship with Teachers --- p.11 / Chapter 2.1.5 --- Peer Relationship in School --- p.12 / Chapter 2.1.6 --- Relationship with the Family and Adaptation to the Change of Living Environment --- p.13 / Chapter 2.1.7 --- Community Support for Students --- p.15 / Chapter 2.1.8 --- Limitations of Local Studies on Young NACs and Focus of Current Study --- p.16 / Chapter 2.2 --- Socio-cultural Dimension in Minority Education --- p.18 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Interpersonal Relationship with Classmates and Teachers --- p.18 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Role of the Minority Parents --- p.20 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Cultural Adaptation and Marginality --- p.21 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Identity --- p.25 / Chapter 2.2.5 --- Summary --- p.27 / Chapter 2.3 --- Effects of Age-based Identity on Learning --- p.29 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Academic Improvement --- p.29 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- School Dropouts --- p.30 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Self Concept --- p.31 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- School Adjustment --- p.33 / Chapter 2.3.5 --- Summary --- p.34 / Chapter 2.4 --- Socio-cultural Influences in SLA --- p.36 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Norton's Theorization about Socio-culturalInfluences on the SLA --- p.36 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Research Studies Supporting Norton's Theorization --- p.38 / Chapter 2.4.3 --- "Norton (1997,2000)'s Revisit of the SLA Theory" --- p.41 / Chapter 2.4.4 --- Summary --- p.44 / Chapter CHAPTER 3 --- METHODOLOGY --- p.46 / Chapter 3.1 --- Research Method --- p.46 / Chapter 3.2 --- The Case Study Research Approach --- p.47 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Definition of Case Study --- p.47 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Merits and Limitations of the Case Study --- p.47 / Chapter 3.2.2.1 --- Merits --- p.47 / Chapter 3.2.2.2 --- Limitations --- p.49 / Chapter 3.3 --- The Case Study approach for the Study of the Young New Arrivals from Mainland China --- p.50 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Research Design --- p.50 / Chapter 3.3.1.1 --- Multiple-Case Study --- p.50 / Chapter 3.3.1.2 --- Length of Research Period --- p.51 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Data Collection --- p.52 / Chapter 3.3.2.1 --- Triangulation of Informants and Data Collection Methods --- p.52 / Chapter 3.3.2.2 --- Self-completion questionnaires andQualitative Interviews --- p.53 / Chapter 3.3.2.3 --- Semi-structured Interviews --- p.54 / Chapter 3.3.2.4 --- Audio-recording and Transcription --- p.55 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Data Analysis --- p.55 / Chapter 3.3.3.1 --- Deductive Data analysis Approaches --- p.55 / Chapter 3.3.3.2 --- Member Checks --- p.56 / Chapter 3.4 --- Selection of Subjects for the Study --- p.57 / Chapter 3.5 --- Profile of Subjects --- p.58 / Chapter 3.6 --- Procedures of the Study --- p.61 / Chapter 3.6.1 --- Stage 1: Pilot-testing of Questionnaires (Late June 2001) --- p.61 / Chapter 3.6.2 --- Stage 2: Interviews with the Teachers (Early July 2001 to early December2001) --- p.62 / Chapter 3.6.3 --- Stage 3: Interviews with the Subjects to Collect Background --- p.63 / Chapter 3.6.4 --- Stage 4: Interviews with the Subjects to Collect In-depth Data (Mid-September 2001 to Mid-January2001) --- p.63 / Chapter 3.6.5 --- "Stage 5: Interviews with the parents (December to February,2001)" --- p.64 / Chapter 3.6.6 --- Stage 6: Data Analysis (March to May) --- p.65 / Chapter CHAPTER 4 --- DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS --- p.67 / Chapter 4.1 --- Reasons for Coming to Hong Kong --- p.67 / Chapter 4.2 --- Scene of Departure and First Day in Hong Kong --- p.70 / Chapter 4.3 --- Schooling in Hong Kong --- p.75 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- First School Day --- p.75 / Chapter 4.3.1.1 --- Feelings before Going to School --- p.75 / Chapter 4.3.1.2 --- New Teachers and Classmates --- p.76 / Chapter 4.3.1.3 --- Cultural Differences and Language Shock --- p.82 / Chapter 4.3.1.4 --- Worries and Concerns --- p.85 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- School Life --- p.87 / Chapter 4.3.2.1 --- Perceived Function of Educationand Academic Goal Setting --- p.87 / Chapter 4.3.2.2 --- Parent's Expectation for the NACs Academic Attainment --- p.89 / Chapter 4.3.2.3 --- Relationship with Teachers --- p.92 / Chapter 4.3.2.4 --- Relationship with Classmates --- p.94 / Chapter 4.3.2.5 --- Language Learning --- p.101 / Chapter 4.3.2.5.1 --- Attitudes towards Different language --- p.101 / Chapter 4.3.2.5.2 --- Cantonese Learning --- p.102 / Chapter 4.3.2.5.3 --- English Learning --- p.104 / Chapter 4.3.2.6 --- Age Gap with Classmates --- p.112 / Chapter 4.3.2.7 --- Participation in Extracurricular Activities --- p.115 / Chapter 4.3.2.8 --- Change to a Different School --- p.116 / Chapter 4.4 --- Family Life and Community Support --- p.119 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- Family Life --- p.119 / Chapter 4.4.1.1 --- Relationship with Family --- p.119 / Chapter 4.4.1.2 --- Living Environment --- p.123 / Chapter 4.4.1.3 --- Family's Economic Situation --- p.125 / Chapter 4.4.1.4 --- Comparison with Hongkongers´ة Family Life --- p.127 / Chapter 4.4.1.5 --- Languages use with Family --- p.129 / Chapter 4.4.1.6 --- Learning of Hometown Cultures --- p.131 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- Community Support --- p.133 / Chapter 4.4.2.1 --- Education Department --- p.133 / Chapter 4.4.2.2 --- School's Support --- p.137 / Chapter 4.4.2.3 --- Community Centers --- p.138 / Chapter 4.4.2.4 --- The Church --- p.139 / Chapter 4.5 --- Identity --- p.140 / Chapter 4.5.1 --- Perception of Self and In-group Members --- p.140 / Chapter 4.5.2 --- Feeling about Different Labels and Desirable Identity --- p.142 / Chapter 4.6 --- Summary --- p.146 / Chapter CHAPTER 5 --- CONCLUSION --- p.148 / Chapter 5.1 --- The NACs' Sense of Self and Socio-cultural Adaptation --- p.148 / Chapter 5.1.1 --- Sense of Self before and after coming to Hong Kong --- p.148 / Chapter 5.1.2 --- Factors Affecting Sense of Self --- p.150 / Chapter 5.1.3 --- Socio-cultural Differences --- p.151 / Chapter 5.1.4 --- Socio-cultural Influences on Learning --- p.152 / Chapter 5.1.5 --- Strategies Adopted by the Young NACs --- p.157 / Chapter 5.2 --- Recommendations and Suggestions --- p.158 / Chapter 5.3 --- Limitations of the Current Study and Suggestions for Future Studies - --- p.162 / reference --- p.163 / appendix --- p.174 / APPENDIX a Number of NACs Admitted to Secondary School (1991-2000) --- p.174 / APPENDIX B The Replication Approach to Multiple Case Study ´ؤ --- p.175 / APPENDIX C Consent Form for NACs Students --- p.176 / APPENDIX D Questionnaires for Young NACs I (Socioculutural Adaptation and Sense of Self) --- p.178 / APPENDIX E Questionnaires for Young NACs II (English Language Learning) --- p.192 / APPENDIX F Consent for NACs´ة English Teachers --- p.206 / APPENDIX G Interview Guide for the NACs' English Teachers -…- --- p.207 / APPENDIX H Interview Guide for Interview with Young NACs I(Sense of Departure & First day in Hong Kong) --- p.209 / APPENDIX I Interview Guide for Interview with Young NACs II (First School Day and the School Life) --- p.211 / APPENDIX J Interview Guide for Interview with YoungNACs III (Family Life) --- p.213 / APPENDIX K Interview Guide for Interview with YoungNACs IV(Perception of Self and Social Life) --- p.215 / APPENDIX L Consent Form (For NACs' Parents) --- p.217 / APPENDIX M Interview Guide for Interview with Young NACs' Parents --- p.219 / APPENDIX N Interview Transcription (Li: Follow-up Interview of the Questionnaire about Adaptation) --- p.221 / APPENDIX 0 Interview Transcription (Li: English Learning) --- p.229 / APPENDIX P Interview Transcription (Li: First Day in Hong Kong) --- p.239 / APPENDIX Q Interview Transcription (Li: First School Day and the School Life) --- p.248 / APPENDIX R Interview Transcription (Li: Family Life) --- p.264 / APPENDIX S Interview Transcription (Li: Perception ofSelf and Social Life) --- p.272 / APPENDIX T Interview Transcription (Li: Interview with Teacher) --- p.281 / APPENDIX U Interview Transcription (Li: Interview with Parent) --- p.287 / APPENDIX V Interview Transcription (Huang) --- p.292 / APPENDIX W Interview Transcription (Chang) --- p.362 / APPENDIX X Interview Transcription (Wong) --- p.431

This study used discourse analysis (Gee, 2011; 2005; 1999) in order to explore a socio-situated view of how teachers created learning opportunities for the participation of immigrant learners when learning linear programming in a Grade 11 mathematics classroom in South Africa. The aim was to explore that which mathematics teachers do in classrooms with immigrant learners that they will not do if there were no immigrants. A discourse analysis approach was used in order to view the opportunities created through language use not as a tool for communication only but also as a tool for building reality. The study reported in this thesis was conducted in three different settings which are in; urban, township and rural environments. The urban environment focuses on immigrant learners who were born in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and started schooling there, in the township and rural environment it focuses on immigrant learners born in South Africa with parents born in the Republic of Mozambique or Angola. Three different mathematics classrooms were observed in their natural environment during lessons focusing on linear programming. Data was collected through a learner questionnaire issued before lesson observations. The aim of the learner questionnaire was to understand the language background of the learners in the mathematics classrooms selected for the study. The second method included lesson observation for at most five consecutive days at each setting. It involved observing teachers and immigrant learners during teaching sessions of linear programming activities. The activities included reading, writing, speaking and participating in mathematical activities. These activities were then analysed to understand how teachers created learning opportunities for the immigrant learners. The study contextualised the results from lesson observations by conducting clinical interviews with three immigrant learners, one from each site, to provide insights into the explanations on immigrant learners approaches when solving a linear programming task. The main conclusion in this study is that immigrant learners were successful in linear programming when teachers’ created learning opportunities by using code switching to support them. The main contribution of this study is that it focuses on multilingual mathematics classrooms of immigrant learners in South Africa – a context that has not yet been researched in South African vi mathematics education. Exploring language practices in multilingual mathematics classrooms of immigrant learners provides a different gaze into teaching and learning mathematics in multilingual classrooms in South Africa. Equally important is the extent to which immigrant learners are distinct to multilingual learners in the teaching and learning of linear programming. / Mathematics Education / D. Phil. (Mathematics, Science and Technology Education)