Impinging oxygen jets are widely used in steelmaking industries. The momentum transfer from the gas to liquid and resulting instability affect the overall productivity and operational stability. The purpose of this research is to understand the surface deformation, its stability and momentum transfer from the gas to the liquid. Video imaging and Particle Image Velocimetry were used along with water modelling techniques. Surface deformations mainly followed the dimensionless relationship of previous researchers. The surface instability was interpreted with Blowing number and Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. Spatial and time oscillation behaviour were analyzed with Power Spectral Density analysis. A new mathematical model with the full stress boundary condition at the surface was developed. The technique combines the Cartesian Cut Cell and Volume of Fluid method and the surface boundary was modelled a a pressure boundary. The numerical code was tested with the Broken Dam and wave instability problems. Both showed good agreement with the reported physical phenomena. Numerical tests of impinging jets showed similar surface depression depth with the water model experiments. The model was compared with other models. The liquid momentum level was higher as the gas fiowrate increased and the effects of physical property changes on surface instability and momentum transfer efficiency were investigated with the mathematical model. With observations from the numerical test, momentum transfer mechanisms were proposed. Simulations of momentum transfer at industrial flow rates were also carried out. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

A method of providing ventilation using impinging jets (IJV) utilizes stratification while delivering air at a high velocity. As a result of this attribute and the simplicity of its terminal construction, IJV offers an advantage over the well-known Displacement Ventilation (DV) system. The corner IJV system was used during this investigation to construct the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation protocol. To verify the suitability of the turbulence model used in the CFD simulation, numerical values derived from several turbulence models were compared to full-scale experiment data. The results of this study demonstrate that turbulent models are the most important factors when using CFD for the study of the velocity field generated by IJVs terminals. A parametric study was conducted after the models were created and verified using the CFD software COMSOL to determine which is the most suitable arrangement for occupants' ventilation and draught avoidance in a square room. Calculations using computational methods were conducted to characterize the rooms' performance under different operating conditions and cross-sections of the air supply terminals. Among the findings of the research is that increasing the cross-section of the supply terminal reduces the sensation of local discomfort, but decreases air velocity speeds. Furthermore, placing the supply terminal on the same side of a room block improves occupant satisfaction, whereas placing the supply terminal on opposite sides enhances ventilation efficiency.

Les instabilités aéroélastiques de bandes d’acier constituent aujourd’hui l’un des problèmes majeurs dans les sections de refroidissement par jets impactants des lignes de recuit continues.En effet, le traitement thermique des nouveaux aciers nécessite de très fortes pentes de température impliquant constamment des augmentations de vitesse de soufflage susceptibles de mettre en jeu des instabilités aéroélastiques. Des flottements ainsi que des divergences de bande ont déjà été constatées et identifiées. Ces deux instabilités impliquent dans la plupart des cas des chocs entre la bande et les buses de soufflage ce qui engendre des défauts de surface sur la bande.Un banc d’essai a été conçu et fabriqué dans le but d’analyser ces instabilités et d’anticiper leur apparition. A partir d’observations, la dynamique structurelle de la bande a été simplifiée à un mode de rotation rigide. Le banc comporte une plaque oscillante en mouvement forcé.Celle-ci est impactée par un dispositif de plusieurs jets axisymétriques turbulents ayant une disposition identique à celle des tours industrielles. Les efforts aérodynamiques stationnaires et instationnaires agissant sur la plaque sont mesurés au moyen de capteurs de pression.L’impact de plusieurs jets en interaction crée de très importants gradients de pression sur la plaque il est donc nécessaire que la grille de prises de pression soit très fine pour que l’estimation des efforts aérodynamiques soit correcte. La plaque est donc instrumentée de 91capteurs de pression sur une surface de 18 cm². Elle peut également être translatée dans les ois directions de l’espace, ce qui permet d’obtenir la distribution des efforts instationnaires ainsi que des coefficients aéroélastiques sur une grande surface de plaque et à différentes distances d’impact.Les mesures de pression stationnaires ont permis d’établir les courbes d’évolution des efforts d’impact des jets sur la plaque en fonction de la distance jet-plaque ainsi que de la géométrie des buses. Les résultats ont permis de déterminer la stabilité statique de la plaque en mouvement de pompage. Les mesures de vitesses des jets libres ont été effectuées paranémométrie à fil chaud et ont permis de déterminer leurs propriétés statistiques.Les mesures de coefficients aéroélastiques sur la plaque en rotation ont été effectuées surune seule géométrie de soufflage, pour différentes vitesses réduites. Les résultats mettent en évidence l’importance des effets de bords sur la stabilité de plaque. Des méthodes de post traitements ont proposées afin d’extrapoler les résultats à différentes largeurs de bande. Ils sont confrontés aux travaux de Regardin et al. (réf. [1]) et mettent en évidence des désaccords avec le cas réel. Des suggestions sont apportées afin d’améliorer la représentativité du banc vis-à-vis des bandes industrielles. / Aeroelastic instabilities of steel strips impinged by arrays of cooling gas jets have becomeone of the main issues in cooling sections of continuous annealing lines. Indeed, the new steeltreatments require very high temperature variation rates which involve increases in jetvelocities that are likely to onset some aeroelastic instabilities. Strip flutter and divergencehave already been observed and identified. These two aeroelastic instabilities imply a strongrisk of contact with the blowing boxes, which can seriously blemish the strip.An experimental test rig was designed and built in order to analyze and predict of theseinstabilities. From observations, the strip’s structural dynamics was simulated by a rigidrotation mode. The rig included a forced oscillating plate which is impinged by an array ofaxisymmetric jets having the exact industrial geometry. The plate was instrumented withpressure sensors to measure the steady and unsteady surface pressures. The impingement ofinteracting jets creates very large pressure gradients on the plate and therefore a tight mesh ofpressure taps (91 over an 18cm² jet impingement surface) was necessary to allow a goodestimation of the aerodynamic loads The plate could also be moved in the three coordinatedirections as to obtain surface mappings of the unsteady jet forces and aeroelastic coefficientscan be obtained over a wide area and different jet-to-plate distances.The variation of the impinging aerodynamic forces was established as a function of the jetto-plate distance for different nozzle geometries. These results were used to determine the jetstatic stability in plunging motion. Velocity and turbulence measurements in free jets werecarried out using hot wire anemometry in order to determine their statistical properties.Aeroelastic coefficient measurements were carried out on the oscillating plate with onlyone nozzle geometry and different reduced velocities. Results show that the plate’s stability ismainly dependent on the boundary effects. Post processing methods are suggested in order toapply the results to larger plates. Results are compared to the data of Regardin et al. (réf. [1])and emphasize some discrepancies with respect to the real case. Finally some improvementsto the test-rig are suggested for it to be more representative of the industrial situation.

[pt] Vibrações induzidas por escoamento tem apresentado cada vez mais importância na indústria do petróleo. A vibração de colunas produção, somada aos ciclos normais de oscilação de temperatura e pressão dos poços, pode causar o desgaste dos diversos micro-componentes presentes no sistema. Uma potencial fonte de perturbação, em poços injetores, é a turbulência do escoamento formado por um jato que sai em alta velocidade da coluna de injeção e atinge a parede do revestimento. No presente estudo, investiga-se o efeito causado por jatos confinados no espaço anular formado por dois tubos concêntricos. A geometria assemelha-se àquela de um poço injetor, entretanto os números de Reynolds analisados são inferiores ao caso real. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi analisar o comportamento desse tipo de escoamento sob diferentes condições, no que diz respeito a número de Reynolds, distância em relação a superfície e número de jatos presentes no espaço anular. O escoamento no interior do espaço anular foi caracterizado com a técnica de velocimetria por imagem de partículas com alta resolução temporal (time resolved PIV). O comportamento dinâmico das perturbações foi analisado e as estruturas espaciais mais relevantes foram estimadas utilizando a decomposição por modos próprios ortogonais. Os resultados mostram que na presença de dois jatos o escoamento o escoamento apresenta flutuações periódicas mais intensas, com frequências bem definidas, sugerindo um acoplamento dos jatos. Foram realizados experimentos para estimar os coeficientes de transferência de calor associados com esse escoamento. Para isso, foram realizados experimentos com aquecimento da superfície do tubo externo. Nos casos com jatos próximos a superfície, os resultados sugerem que ocorre uma redução da transferência de calor na região de estagnação do jato. / [en] Flow induced vibration has shown an increasingly higher relevance in oil and gas industry. The vibration of completion strings, plus normal cycles of wells, can cause premature failure of micro-components present in the system. Flow turbulence is a potential source of vibration for the system. In injection wells, the fluid flows from the inner pipe (completion string) towards the surface of the external pipes (casings). This flow frequently has a turbulent behaviour, due to the high flow rates employed. In the present study, flow resulting from jets in a confined annular space is investigated, for different parameters, including Reynolds number, pipe diameters and number of jets. The geometry resembles that of an injection well, however the Reynolds numbers analyzed are lower than the actual case. The flow field inside the annular space is characterized using time resolved PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) techniques. The dynamic behavior of the perturbations was analyzed and the most relevant spatial structures were estimated using Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD). Results show that, in presence of two jets, flow exhibits intense periodic fluctuations, with well-defined frequencies This suggests the presence of a coupling between jets. Experiments are carried out to estimate the heat transfer coefficients associated with this flow. In the cases with jets close to the surface, results suggest that a reduction of heat transfer occurs in the region of jet stagnation.

The work reported in this thesis is an attempt to enhance heat transfer in electronic devices with the use of impinging air jets on pin-finned heat sinks. The cooling per-formance of electronic devices has attracted increased attention owing to the demand of compact size, higher power densities and demands on system performance and re-liability. Although the technology of cooling has greatly advanced, the main cause of malfunction of the electronic devices remains overheating. The problem arises due to restriction of space and also due to high heat dissipation rates, which have increased from a fraction of a W/cm2to 100s of W /cm2. Although several researchers have at-tempted to address this at the design stage, unfortunately the speed of invention of cooling mechanism has not kept pace with the ever-increasing requirement of heat re- moval from electronic chips. As a result, efficient cooling of electronic chip remains a challenge in thermal engineering. Heat transfer can be enhanced by several ways like air cooling, liquid cooling, phase change cooling etc. However, in certain applications due to limitations on cost and weight, eg. air borne application, air cooling is imperative. The heat transfer can be increased by two ways. First, increasing the heat transfer coefficient (forced convec- tion), and second, increasing the surface area of heat transfer (finned heat sinks). From previous literature it was established that for a given volumetric air flow rate, jet im-pingement is the best option for enhancing heat transfer coefficient and for a given volume of heat sink material pin-finned heat sinks are the best option because of their high surface area to volume ratio. There are certain applications where very high jet velocities cannot be used because of limitations of noise and presence of delicate components. This process can further be improved by pulsating the jet. A steady jet often stabilizes the boundary layer on the surface to be cooled. Enhancement in the convective heat transfer can be achieved if the boundary layer is broken. Disruptions in the boundary layer can be caused by pulsating the impinging jet, i.e., making the jet unsteady. Besides, the pulsations lead to chaotic mixing, i.e., the fluid particles no more follow well defined streamlines but move unpredictably through the stagnation region. Thus the flow mimics turbulence at low Reynolds number. The pulsation should be done in such a way that the boundary layer can be disturbed periodically and yet adequate coolant is made available. So, that there is not much variation in temperature during one pulse cycle. From previous literature it was found that square waveform is most effective in enhancing heat transfer. In the present study the combined effect of pin-finned heat sink and impinging slot jet, both steady and unsteady, has been investigated for both laminar and turbulent flows. The effect of fin height and height of impingement has been studied. The jets have been pulsated in square waveform to study the effect of frequency and duty cycle. This thesis attempts to increase our understanding of the slot jet impingement on pin-finned heat sinks through numerical investigations. A systematic study is carried out using the finite-volume code FLUENT (Version 6.2) to solve the thermal and flow fields. The standard k-ε model for turbulence equations and two layer zonal model in wall function are used in the problem Pressure-velocity coupling is handled using the SIMPLE algorithm with a staggered grid. The parameters that affect the heat transfer coefficient are: height of the fins, total height of impingement, jet exit Reynolds number, frequency of the jet and duty cycle (percentage time the jet is flowing during one complete cycle of the pulse). From the studies carried out it was found that: a) beyond a certain height of the fin the rate of enhancement of heat transfer becomes very low with further increase in height, b) the heat transfer enhancement is much more sensitive to any changes at low Reynolds number than compared to high Reynolds number, c) for a given total height of impingement the use of fins and pulsated jet, increases the effective heat transfer coefficient by almost 200% for the same average Reynolds number, d) for all the cases it was observed that the optimum frequency of impingement is around 50 − 100 Hz and optimum duty cycle around 25-33.33%, e) in the case of turbulent jets the enhancement in heat transfer due to pulsations is very less compared to the enhancement in case of laminar jets.

A CFD validation study was made using corner supplied impinging jet ventilation operating in cooling mode. The air distribution system has two equilateral triangle shaped inlets placed 80cm above the floor at the two that share a common wall. The supply air was introduced at 2.26m/s. The temperature of the supply air at one of the inlets was slightly higher than the other. The room air velocity and temperature profiles were studied using realizable k-e, RNG k-e, k-e SST and v2-f turbulence models and compared with experimental values. Generally, the agreement between the experimental measurement data of the room air temperatures and velocities and the CFD results was very good in all turbulence models. However, the RNG k-e turbulence model showed better correlation with average errors of 1.9% and 2.8% in predicting temperature and velocity respectively. Possibility of local thermal discomfort with the indoor air were investigated using the Fanger’s thermal comfort indices and draught rate while the air quality was evaluated by the mean age of air and the diffusion coefficient. The thermal comfort indices were computed using a user-defined function and the mean age of air was computed by user- defined scalar that solves a partial differential equation that uses the source diffusivity and calculate the residence time of air in the room. The results show that there is a higher risk of draft at the ankle level (close to 20%) and the room air is freshest near the lower region at the centre of the room. The room air is oldest at the region close to the ceiling in the area between the two mannequins. The study concludes that a satisfactory prediction of thermal stratification and velocity fields can made for evaluating the indoor thermal comfort and air quality using RANS based turbulence models.

<p>This thesis investigates the wall pressure distributions of the single-slot impinging jet and multiple-slot impinging jet as a function of various parameters and compares the results obtained with the computational study of Tamadonfar [2010]. The process of gas wiping is used in many industrial applications such as tempering of the plate glass, the chemical mixing process, and turbine blade cooling. One of the most important industrial applications of gas jet wiping is the production of galvanized steel strip in a continuous hot-dip galvanizing line. In this process, an impinging jet is used to remove the excess zinc alloy from the steel strip and control the final coating weight by applying wall pressure and shear stress on the moving substrate emerging from the bath of molten zinc. Changing the various operating parameters such as jet Reynolds number (<em>Re</em>), the jet to strip distance (<em>z</em>), the jet slot width (<em>d</em>), and jet inclination angles (<em>α</em>) allows manufacturers manipulate the final coating weight on the substrate. Production of high quality sheet steels, which have a very thin coating weight and high uniformity quality, is one of the goals of the automotive industry. In order to obtain thinner and more uniform coating weight, a new model of impinging jet which is comprised of one main jet with two auxiliary jets, one on each side of the main jet, called a multiple-slot impinging jet, is of considerable interest.</p> <p>For the current study, a multiple-slot impinging jet was designed and manufactured and measurements were performed for both the single-slot impinging jets, the current model used in continuous hot-dip galvanizing lines, and the multiple-slot impinging jet subjected to a wide range of gas wiping parameters which include the main jet Reynolds number (<em>Re_m</em>), the auxiliary jet Reynolds number (<em>Re_a</em>), and the plate-to-nozzle ratio (<em>z/d</em>). A comparison between the measured results obtained for the two impinging jet configurations and the numerical results by Tamadonfar [2010] has been provided. The similarities and differences between the experimental and numerical results are presented and discussed.</p> / Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering (MSME)

L’objectif de ces travaux est d’étudier expérimentalement la dispersion d’hydrogène pour évaluer l’impact des fuites chroniques ou accidentelles qui peuvent intervenir en milieu libre ou encombré, à faible ou à forte pression, sur un véhicule fonctionnant avec une pile à combustible. Les fuites étudiées sont assimilées à des jets verticaux, turbulents, axisymétriques, à densité variable, et issus d’orifices cylindriques de 1 à 3 mm de diamètre. Un banc expérimental a été conçu pour étudier ces fuites : l’hydrogène a été remplacé par de l’hélium pour des raisons de sécurité. Il résiste à une pression de 200 bars et permet de positionner un obstacle dans le jet. La technique BOS (Background Oriented Schlieren) a été adaptée aux jets millimétriques et à la présence d’un obstacle. Un soin particulier à été apporté à la mise en place de cette technique. Les résultats obtenus sont en accord avec ceux de la littérature quand il en existe. De nouvelles lois de similitude sont proposées, plus représentatives de la physique des jets : libres subsoniques, libres sousdétendus, et subsoniques en présence d’un obstacle (sphère). À partir de l’analyse de la structure compressible des jets sous-détendus, de nouvelles lois sont aussi proposées pour estimer la position et le diamètre du disque de Mach puis la longueur du cône potentiel. Enfin, deux lois d’estimation du volume et de la masse inflammables de jets libres d’hydrogène sont proposées : elles sont fonction du débit massique de la fuite. / The aim of this work is to experimentally investigate the hydrogen dispersion to evaluate the impact of chronic or accidental leaks that may occur in a free or in a congested environment, from a low or a high pressure tank, on a fuel cell vehicle. The leaks are assimilated to vertical turbulent and axisymmetric jets with variable density. They are issued from cylindrical orifices from 1 to 3 mm diameter. An experimental set-up was designed to investigate the leaks : hydrogen has been replaced by helium for safety reasons. It supports a 200 bar pressure and allows to position an obstacle in the jet flow. The BOS (Background Oriented Schlieren) technique has been adapted to millimeter jets and to the presence of an obstacle. Particular attention has been given to the development of this technique. The results show good agrement with the available litterature data.New similarity laws are proposed, more representative of the flows of : subsonic free jets, under-expanded free jets, and subsonic impinging (a sphere) jets. From the structure analysis of compressible under-expanded free jets, new relations are proposed to estimate the Mach disk position and diameter as well as the potential core length. Finally, two new laws are found from the analysis of flammable volume and flammable mass : they are based on the leak mass flow rate.

Regarding the great importance of fast cooling in steel industry for the production processes, a deep understanding of heat transfer and fluid dynamics must be held. A steel plate is heated up until a maximum temperature of 700 ⁰ C to be the n cooled down seconds later by a configuration of multi ple impinging water jets. Different flow rates are used simultaneously by different adjacent jets to perform quenching over the sample, so different hardness is obtained in the material over a small area . Temperature drop in time i s measured and monitored by embedded thermocouples and LabVIEW program. To achieve greater understanding of the quenching performance with different flow rates , several parameters are selected to be varied in order to achieve the best working conditions. Jet diameter takes values between 4 and 10 mm, initial temperature of quenching varies from 400 to 700 ⁰ C , subcooling temperature is tested for 65 and 75 K, and jet velocity varies between 1.9 and 3.9 m/s. The result of total number of 9 expe riments shown that v ariation of jet diam eter does not influence substantially on the cooling rate if flow rate is kept constant. High initial quenching temperature (600 - 700 ⁰ C ) led to slightly higher cooling rate in the stagnation region of water jets. The peak value of heat transfer rate in the upwash flow zone was more highlighted for initial quenching temperature 600 ⁰ C and below it. High er values of subcooling and jet velocity produce better cooling rates. The result shown higher jet velocity at one column of water jets changes position of upw ash flow slightly toward the adjacent column of jets with lower jet velocity. In general, the result shown that all the studied parameters did not have negative effect on obtaining various cooling rates over the steel plate.

Cette thèse est consacrée à l'étude des propriétés aéroacoustiques de jets supersoniques impactant une paroi par simulation des grandes échelles. Ces simulations sont réalisées à partir des équations de Navier-Stokes 3-D instationnaires compressibles exprimées pour des coordonnées cartésiennes ou cylindriques. Afin de résoudre ces équations, des schémas numériques de différenciation spatiale et d'intégration temporelle peu dispersifs et peu dissipatifs sont utilisés. Les écoulements étudiés étant supersoniques, une procédure de capture de choc est également implémentée afin de supprimer les oscillations de Gibbs de part et d'autre des chocs.Dans un premier temps, un jet rond libre et quatre jets ronds impactant une paroi avec un angle de 90 degrés sont simulés sur des maillages cylindriques. Ces jets sont supersoniques, sous-détendus, et sont caractérisés par un nombre de Reynolds calculé à partir du diamètre du jet de Re=60.000, et par un nombre de Mach parfaitement détendu de Mj=1.56. Les résultats du jet libre sont tout d'abord présentés. Ils sont comparés aux résultats de plusieurs études expérimentales et de modèles afin de valider l'approche numérique utilisée. Notamment, les différentes composantes acoustiques spécifiques aux jets sous-détendus comme le bruit de choc large-bande et le bruit de screech sont observées et analysées. Les résultats obtenus pour les quatre jets impactant une paroi sont ensuite examinés. Dans ce cas, la présence d'une boucle de rétroaction aéroacoustique entre les lèvres de la buse et la paroi est montrée. Pour finir, le comportement aérodynamique et aéroacoustique des jets est étudié, et comparé à différentes études numériques et expérimentales de la littérature. Quatre jets plans supersoniques idéalement détendus impactant une paroi avec un angle de 90 degrés sont ensuite calculés. Ils ont un nombre de Reynolds évalué à partir de la hauteur de la buse de Re=50.000 et un nombre de Mach de Mj=1.28. Une boucle de rétroaction aéroacoustique entre la buse et la paroi est de nouveau mise en évidence. Une combinaison de modèles associant un modèle d'onde stationnaire aérodynamique-acoustique et un modèle de stabilité de jet plan 2-D avec des couches de mélange infiniment minces est alors proposée. Ce modèle permet de déterminer à la fois les fréquences les plus probables de la boucle de rétroaction aéroacoustique et leurs natures plane ou sinueuse.Enfin, les simulations de deux jets plans supersoniques impactant une paroi avec des angles de 60 et 75 degrés sont réalisées grâce à l'utilisation de deux maillages cartésiens, par une méthode de recouvrement de maillages. Les modifications des propriétés de la boucle de rétroaction aéroacoustique lorsque l'angle d'impact dévie de 90 degrés sont ainsi étudiées. / In this PhD work, supersonic impinging jets are simulated using large-eddy simulation in order to investigate their aerodynamic and acoustic fields. In practice, the unsteady compressible Navier-Stokes equations are solved on Cartesian or cylindrical meshes. Low-dissipation and low-dispersion numerical methods are used for spatial differentiation and time integration. As the jets are supersonic, a shock-capturing filtering is also applied in order to avoid Gibbs oscillations near shocks.A free round jet and four round jets impinging normally on a flat plate are first simulated on cylindrical meshes. They are underexpanded, and have a Reynolds number based on the nozzle diameter of Re=60.000 and a fully expanded Mach number of Mj=1.56. The results for the free jet are first presented. They are compared with experimental results and predictions given by models in order to validate the numerical setup. Acoustic components specific to underexpanded jets such as broadband shock-associated noise and screech noise are obtained. The results for the four impinging jets are then examined. An aeroacoustic feedback mechanism establishing between the nozzle lips and the flat plate is found to generate tones. Finally, the flow and acoustic properties of the jets are studied and compared with numerical and experimental data.Four ideally expanded jets impinging normally on a flat plate are then simulated. They have a Reynolds number based on the nozzle height of Re=50.000 and a Mach number of Mj=1.28. An aeroacoustic feedback mechanism is again observed between the nozzle lips and the flat plate. A combination of models based on an aeroacoustic feedback model and a vortex sheet model of the jet is then proposed. The model appears able to predict the most likely tone frequencies of the feedback mechanism, and the symmetric or antisymmetric nature of the corresponding jet oscillation.Finally, two ideally expanded jets impinging on a flat plate with angles between the jet direction and the plate of 60 and 75 degrees are simulated using two Cartesian meshes. The effects of the angle of impact on the properties of the aeroacoustic feedback mechanism are finally studied.