This thesis examines how power is constituted in hybrid polycentric systems of security governance. In particular, the thesis explores how legitimacy - as one form of power - is configured in Improvement Districts in South Africa, with a specific focus on three ways by which it is gained: through promoting public participation in decision-making; through transparent and accountable policing nodes; and through the delivery of effective security for the public good. Polycentric systems of security governance are usually composed of a number of policing or security nodes that are independent of each other, but take account of each other in relationships of co-operation or conflict and where no single node dominates all the rest. In other words, some or all of these nodes, may co-ordinate around specific security problems or events in a sustained manner. The functioning of polycentric security governance was explored in Improvement Districts in Cape Town and Johannesburg, as they are an exemplar of polycentricity in the way that they operate. Qualitative field research was employed using a nodal analytical framework and a collective case study approach. In-depth interviewing, participant and direct observation as well as documentary analysis were the primary research methods employed. The findings of the research reveal that polycentricity impacts on legitimacy in a number of ways. Legitimacy may originate from multiple sources and state and non-state policing nodes within polycentric security governance systems may undermine, enhance and/or co-produce democratic participation, accountability and security for the public interest. There are a number of factors or conditions that shape whether polycentric systems of governance are legitimate and how they derive this legitimacy. The main finding of the thesis is that for a polycentric system to be aligned to the public interest, it needs to be motivated by public, peer and political expectations, amongst other things. The findings of the thesis both challenge the normative tendency to associate democratic legitimacy with the state and contribute to the pressing question of how to theoretically account for the empirical reality of polycentric security governance systems.

In 2009, a new form of model was introduced in Sweden; Business Improvement Districts - BID. The model enables collaboration between the public and the private sector and has in several places managed to achieve social and economic success. Due to the social successes and the proven benefits of public-private partnerships in relation to climate control, it will be interesting to examine the conditions for integrated climate considerations within the model. The purpose of this study is therefore, through a case study of Sofielund in Malmö to investigate how BID can function as a tool to promote climate adaptation in the existing settlement.  Qualitative, semi-structured interviews have been applied together with an inductive interpretive content analysis in order to answer the research questions of this study. This proves that social factors are prioritized within the BID model; an identified challenge is therefore to integrate and combine social and climatic factors in order to further develop the existing settlement. On these findings the recommendation is to work with multifunctional adaptation measures. Furthermore, the study shows that the residents of Sofielund are important for the implementation of climate adaptation measures. More on a balanced division of responsibilities between public and private actors is recommended. A greater influence among the residents is also fundamental in order to reach effective integration of climate aspects. Additionally, it is important to find a balance between jointly set goals and individual actor’s incentives. A final conclusion is that a long-term perspective is a significant factor for successful collaboration. Long-term perspectives in the process allow for climate aspects to grow within BID. / 2009 introducerades en ny form av platssamverkansmodell i Sverige; Business Improvement Districts - BID. Modellen möjliggör för samverkan mellan den privata och den offentliga sektorn och har idag på flera platser i landet lyckats uppnå sociala och ekonomiska framgångar. På grund av de sociala framgångarna och påvisade fördelarna med offentlig-privat samverkan i relation till klimatstyrning blir det intressant att undersöka klimatfrågans roll inom modellen. Studiens syfte är att med en fallstudie av Sofielund i Malmö undersöka hur BID kan främja klimatanpassning i befintlig miljö.   I syfte att besvara studiens forskningsfrågor har kvalitativa, semistrukturerade intervjuer tillsammans med en induktiv tematisk analys tillämpats. Resultatet visar att sociala faktorer idag är högre prioriterat än miljöaspekter inom BID-modellen. Det finns därför en utmaning i att integrera och kombinera sociala aspekter med miljömässiga för vidare utveckling av befintlig bebyggelse. En rekommendation blir därmed att arbeta med multifunktionella anpassningsåtgärder, det vill säga åtgärder med flera funktioner. Studien visar även att de boende i Sofielund utgör en viktig drivkraft för implementering av klimatanpassningsåtgärder. Vidare rekommenderas en balanserad ansvarsfördelning mellan offentliga och privata aktörer samt att större inflytande tilldelas de boende inom BIDs, vilket är en förutsättning för styrkandet av klimatfrågans roll inom BIDs. Det är dessutom viktigt att hitta en balans mellan gemensamt uppsatta mål och aktörers individuella mål. En slutsats är att långsiktighet utgör en betydande faktor för lyckad samverkan mellan aktörer. Långsiktighet inom processen tillåter klimataspekters roll att växa inom BID.

ABSTRACT The need to create socially inclusive public space has gained increasing attention among policy makers at the City of Johannesburg. A rise in the privatisation of public space has however been criticised by some analysts as exclusionary. In that context, this study explores the recent development of Gandhi Square as a central city heritage site which operates as privately-managed public space. The re-imaging of the Square has been inspired by M.K. Gandhi’s association with the site. As its main aim, the study assesses the effectiveness of heritage interventions made at the site in meeting their intended goal of addressing a legacy of spatial exclusion through the creation of socially inclusive public space. It evaluates the historical legacy of M.K. Gandhi as the figurehead for the new Square, considered in relation to issues of social inclusion and diversity. Further, the study explores whether the private management of Gandhi square accommodates diversity. It concludes that Gandhi Square is, on both a symbolic and functional level, broadly inclusive of diversity in the context of the Johannesburg inner city.

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Initiativ från internationell, nationell och lokal nivå förespråkar arbete i de offentliga rummen för utveckling mot inkluderande, säkra och hållbara städer. Insatser från olika aktörer behövs för att förbättra allmänna platser och många hänvisar till den internationella modellen Business Improvement District (BID) som innebär samverkan mellan kommun, fastighetsägare, handlare och andra aktörer för säkerställande av välskötta och attraktiva offentliga miljöer. I Stockholm har dock privata aktörer upplevt ett motstånd från kommunen när de försöker implementera BID-inspirerade metoder. Den här studien beskriver och analyserar hur BID-inspirerade metoder används för långsiktigt arbete i urban miljö i Sverige och inom Stockholms kommun.  Studien är genomgående kvalitativ och har ett utforskande angreppssätt, där frågeställningen behandlas genom tre delstudier som har utförts parallellt: (1) Observationer, intervjuer och deltagande i seminarier (2) Dokumentbaserade fallstudier av befintliga organisationer som genomför platsspecifikt arbete i Sverige (3) Undersökning av Stockholms Stads beslutsprocesser gällande användning av allmänna platser Studien väger in kommunala och privata perspektiv för att undersöka BID, som begrepp och som verktyg. Resultatet visar att platssamverkan kan appliceras på alla platser där det är fler än en verksam aktör och att det redan finns ett stort antal organisationer som genomför BID-liknande metoder. Det finns dock potentiella konflikter mellan privata intressen och kommunens ansvar att hålla allmänna platser tillgängliga för allmänheten. Stockholms Stad vill vara försiktiga med att implementera nya arbetssätt om det finns risk att vissa människors intressen tillgodoses på bekostnad av andras behov. De anser dock att det är viktigt att tänka nytt inom dessa frågor och tror att processerna kommer att se annorlunda ut när metoder för platssamverkan blir bättre beprövade. Att det saknas tydligt definierade strukturer och riktlinjer för platssamverkan är en begränsande faktor, och en slutsats är att marknaden skulle gynnas av ett paraplyorgan som kan tillhandahålla stöd och vägledning till lokalt arbete. / International, national and local initiatives encourage the development of public spaces towards inclusive, safe and sustainable cities. Contributions from different public and private organisations are needed to improve public places. Many people refer to the international Business Improvement District (BID) model, which involves collaboration between municipalities, property owners, merchants and other industry actors to ensure well-maintained and attractive public environments. Private businesses have however experienced conflicts with the municipality when trying to implement BID-inspired methods in Stockholm. This study investigates how BID-inspired methods are used for long-term management of urban environments in Sweden and within the Stockholm municipality. It is a qualitative study with an exploratory approach that addresses the problem area using the following three procedures: (1) Observations, interviews and participation in seminars (2) Document-based case studies of existing organisations that implement BID-inspired methods in Sweden (3) Exploration of Stockholm municipality’s procedures regarding the use of public places The study discusses both municipal and private perspectives to investigate BID as a phenomenon and as a tool. The results show that BID-inspired methods can be applied in all locations where there is more than one industry actor and that there are a large number of organisations in Sweden already implementing similar methods. However, there are potential conflicts between private interests and the municipality's responsibility to keep public places accessible to the public. Stockholm municipality wants to be careful when implementing new tools and procedures to minimize the risk that certain people will reap benefits at the expense of others. However, they find it important to be innovative about these issues and they believe that such models are more viable when methods for collective actions in place management become verified and systematised. The lack of clearly defined structures and guidelines for implementing such collaborative models is thus a limiting factor, and the conclusion is that the industry would benefit from an umbrella organisation providing support and guidance for local work.

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