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Utilizando-se os dados da Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares (POF) de 2008-2009, são apresentadas estimativas das elasticidades-renda de diversas categorias de despesa com energia (Transporte, Gasolina, Álcool combustível, Habitação, Energia elétrica, Gás doméstico). O método econométrico compreende o cálculo da despesa média em dez classes de renda familiar per capita e a estimativa de uma função poligonal com três segmentos, obtendo a variação do logaritmo da despesa per capita média por classe em função do logaritmo da renda per capita. Também são estimadas as razões e curvas de concentração das despesas com energia, verificando em que medida essas despesas estão ou não concentradas nas famílias de maior renda. No que se refere à relação entre a posição da curva de concentração e o valor da elasticidade-renda, desenvolve-se uma generalização dos resultados de Kakwani (1977) para situações em que há duas ou mais elasticidades-renda distintas em uma mesma curva de concentração. Em geral, Álcool combustível está associado à maior razão de concentração e Gás doméstico à menor. As despesas com transporte têm as razões de concentração mais próximas do índice de Gini. A área rural é mais pobre, mas a renda e as categorias de despesa agregadas são menos concentradas na área rural do que na urbana. A despesa com gás doméstico está mais concentrada na área rural, devido ao maior uso de lenha. As maiores razões de concentração são do Sudeste, exclusive São Paulo, enquanto Sul e São Paulo apresentam as menores. / Using data from the 2008-2009 Brazilian Family Budget Survey, we estimate income elasticities for several types of energy expenditures (Transportation, Housing costs, Gas, Fuel Alcohol, Electricity, Liquefied Petroleum gas). The econometric method applied consists in computing the average expenditure for ten classes of per capita family income and, for each category of consumption, adjusting a three-segmented polygonal model, analyzing how the logarithm of per capita expenditure varies as a function of the logarithm of the per capita family income. Concentration curves and concentration ratios of expenditures are also estimated, evaluating if each type of expenditure is or is not concentrated in high income families. Considering the relationship between the position of the concentration curve and the value of the income elasticity, we develop a generalization of Kakwani\'s (1977) results for situations with two or more different elasticities in one concentration curve. In general, Fuel Alcohol is associated with the highest concentration and Liquefied Petroleum Gas with the lowest. The concentration ratio of Transportation expenses is the closest to the Gini index. Poverty is higher in the rural area, but income and the main expenses are less concentrated in the rural area than in the urban area. Liquefied Petroleum Gas is more concentrated in the rural area, because of the greater use of firewood. The largest concentration ratios are of the Southeast, excluding São Paulo, while South and São Paulo have the smallest ones.

Utilizando-se os dados da Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares (POF) de 2008-2009, são apresentadas estimativas das elasticidades-renda de diversas categorias de despesa com energia (Transporte, Gasolina, Álcool combustível, Habitação, Energia elétrica, Gás doméstico). O método econométrico compreende o cálculo da despesa média em dez classes de renda familiar per capita e a estimativa de uma função poligonal com três segmentos, obtendo a variação do logaritmo da despesa per capita média por classe em função do logaritmo da renda per capita. Também são estimadas as razões e curvas de concentração das despesas com energia, verificando em que medida essas despesas estão ou não concentradas nas famílias de maior renda. No que se refere à relação entre a posição da curva de concentração e o valor da elasticidade-renda, desenvolve-se uma generalização dos resultados de Kakwani (1977) para situações em que há duas ou mais elasticidades-renda distintas em uma mesma curva de concentração. Em geral, Álcool combustível está associado à maior razão de concentração e Gás doméstico à menor. As despesas com transporte têm as razões de concentração mais próximas do índice de Gini. A área rural é mais pobre, mas a renda e as categorias de despesa agregadas são menos concentradas na área rural do que na urbana. A despesa com gás doméstico está mais concentrada na área rural, devido ao maior uso de lenha. As maiores razões de concentração são do Sudeste, exclusive São Paulo, enquanto Sul e São Paulo apresentam as menores. / Using data from the 2008-2009 Brazilian Family Budget Survey, we estimate income elasticities for several types of energy expenditures (Transportation, Housing costs, Gas, Fuel Alcohol, Electricity, Liquefied Petroleum gas). The econometric method applied consists in computing the average expenditure for ten classes of per capita family income and, for each category of consumption, adjusting a three-segmented polygonal model, analyzing how the logarithm of per capita expenditure varies as a function of the logarithm of the per capita family income. Concentration curves and concentration ratios of expenditures are also estimated, evaluating if each type of expenditure is or is not concentrated in high income families. Considering the relationship between the position of the concentration curve and the value of the income elasticity, we develop a generalization of Kakwani\'s (1977) results for situations with two or more different elasticities in one concentration curve. In general, Fuel Alcohol is associated with the highest concentration and Liquefied Petroleum Gas with the lowest. The concentration ratio of Transportation expenses is the closest to the Gini index. Poverty is higher in the rural area, but income and the main expenses are less concentrated in the rural area than in the urban area. Liquefied Petroleum Gas is more concentrated in the rural area, because of the greater use of firewood. The largest concentration ratios are of the Southeast, excluding São Paulo, while South and São Paulo have the smallest ones.

The rapid growth of gasoline consumption in the USA for the last decades brings much concern to scientists and politicians. Therefore many researchers investigated the influence of the main factors that have an impact on gasoline demand. In our study we tried to estimate gasoline demand in the USA, using national time series data for the period 1984-2010. Gasoline demand function considered in this paper includes price, income, fuel efficiency and gasoline consumption in previous year, as the main explanatory variables. The model is estimated using simultaneous equations and cointegration and error correction model (ECM). The results of both methods show a significant price and income effect on gasoline demand. The price is found inelastic and its impact on gasoline demand is very small, however when we correct for endogeneity of price variable, we obtain higher price elasticity. The results on income elasticities obtained from two methods are dubious, since the two methods gave us the different results. In whole, an income raise will lead to an increase of consumption, gasoline demand is inelastic with respect to income in the short-run, while in the long-run it is found to be elastic according to 2SLS method, while the results of cointegration method indicate that gasoline response to income changes is higher in the short-run than in the long-run. Lag of error term suggests that around 57% of adjustment between short-run and long-run occurs during the first year.

<p>This thesis consists of four papers: two of them deal with the relationship between consumption, energy taxation, and emissions on macro level, and two of them focuses on the effects of changes in consumption and income on the environmental quality on a micro level.</p><p>The main objective of paper [I] is to examine how exogenous technological progress, in terms of an increase in energy efficiency, affects consumption choice by Swedish households and thereby emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx). The aim of the paper is closely related to the discussion of what is known as the “rebound effect”. To neutralise the rebound effect, we estimate the necessary change in CO2 tax, i.e. the CO2 tax that keeps CO2 emissions at their initial level. In addition, we estimate how this will affect emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. The results indicate that an increase in energy efficiency of 20 percent will increase emissions of CO2 by approximately 5 percent. To reduce the CO2 emissions to their initial level, CO2 tax must be raised by 130 percent. This tax increase will reduce the emissions of sulphur dioxide to below their initial level, but will leave the emissions of nitrogen oxides at a higher level than initially.</p><p>One of the premises implied in paper [II] is that the changes in consumer prices, as a result of changes in environmental taxes, may send a different signal to the consumer compared with other changes in consumer prices, such as changes in producer price. In addition, this assumed difference in the signaling effect of the changes in environmental taxes, compared to changes in the producer price, may also differ between different commodities. To achieve the objectives a system of demand functions for Swedish households is estimated. To test for the signalling effect of environmental taxes the consumer price for energy goods is partitioned into a producer price part and a tax part.</p><p>In Paper [III], we estimate the income elasticity of demand for recreational services and other traditional groups of goods in Sweden and we test for potential changes in such estimates over the twentieth century. The paper uses Swedish household surveys for the years 1913, 1984, 1988, and 1996. Because of the difficulty of directly observing the demand for recreational services, we employ an indirect methodology by using the demand for some outdoor goods as proxies for the recreational services demand.</p><p>In paper [IV], we investigate the relationship between pollution and income at the household level. Here we want to investigate, and hence contribute to the existing literature, under what conditions concerning individual preferences and the link between consumption and pollution a linear relationship are to be expected, but also to empirically assess the relationship. To achieve our objective we formulate a model determining different type of households’ choice of consumption for goods. Furthermore we link the demand model to emission functions for the various goods. The results from the empirical analysis show that, at least in a close neighbourhood of observed income/pollution, we can reject linearity for all three types of pollutions, CO2, SO2, and NOx. According to our results the pollution/income relationships are all strictly concave. Thus the implication is that the income distribution seems to matter in the sense that equalization of income will lead to higher emissions. Furthermore it is shown that the slope as well as the curvature differs between different types of households, which means that preferences differ across households.</p>

This thesis consists of four papers: two of them deal with the relationship between consumption, energy taxation, and emissions on macro level, and two of them focuses on the effects of changes in consumption and income on the environmental quality on a micro level. The main objective of paper [I] is to examine how exogenous technological progress, in terms of an increase in energy efficiency, affects consumption choice by Swedish households and thereby emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx). The aim of the paper is closely related to the discussion of what is known as the “rebound effect”. To neutralise the rebound effect, we estimate the necessary change in CO2 tax, i.e. the CO2 tax that keeps CO2 emissions at their initial level. In addition, we estimate how this will affect emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. The results indicate that an increase in energy efficiency of 20 percent will increase emissions of CO2 by approximately 5 percent. To reduce the CO2 emissions to their initial level, CO2 tax must be raised by 130 percent. This tax increase will reduce the emissions of sulphur dioxide to below their initial level, but will leave the emissions of nitrogen oxides at a higher level than initially. One of the premises implied in paper [II] is that the changes in consumer prices, as a result of changes in environmental taxes, may send a different signal to the consumer compared with other changes in consumer prices, such as changes in producer price. In addition, this assumed difference in the signaling effect of the changes in environmental taxes, compared to changes in the producer price, may also differ between different commodities. To achieve the objectives a system of demand functions for Swedish households is estimated. To test for the signalling effect of environmental taxes the consumer price for energy goods is partitioned into a producer price part and a tax part. In Paper [III], we estimate the income elasticity of demand for recreational services and other traditional groups of goods in Sweden and we test for potential changes in such estimates over the twentieth century. The paper uses Swedish household surveys for the years 1913, 1984, 1988, and 1996. Because of the difficulty of directly observing the demand for recreational services, we employ an indirect methodology by using the demand for some outdoor goods as proxies for the recreational services demand. In paper [IV], we investigate the relationship between pollution and income at the household level. Here we want to investigate, and hence contribute to the existing literature, under what conditions concerning individual preferences and the link between consumption and pollution a linear relationship are to be expected, but also to empirically assess the relationship. To achieve our objective we formulate a model determining different type of households’ choice of consumption for goods. Furthermore we link the demand model to emission functions for the various goods. The results from the empirical analysis show that, at least in a close neighbourhood of observed income/pollution, we can reject linearity for all three types of pollutions, CO2, SO2, and NOx. According to our results the pollution/income relationships are all strictly concave. Thus the implication is that the income distribution seems to matter in the sense that equalization of income will lead to higher emissions. Furthermore it is shown that the slope as well as the curvature differs between different types of households, which means that preferences differ across households.

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Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:48:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Lincoln Diogo Lima.pdf: 1438283 bytes, checksum: 2bfc9e1f29112f1bb26c5289a9dad140 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-05-22 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This dissertation aims at analyzing empirically, by means of estimates of price and income elasticities, the behavior of the trade balance between Brazil and the USA, between january 1990 and october 2011. The theoretical approaches of Elasticities and Absorption provide the theoretical relations for determinants of trade balance, allowing the construction of a workable structure for empirical research. Empirical studies on the subject shows that, recently, the form of data aggregation and development of new econometric methods, considered by many researchers more appropriate for variables that are not sure about its exogeneity, drove the emergence of new work on the trade balance. The methodology used is the technique of Johansen s multivariate cointegration and vector autoregressive models (VAR) and vector error correction (VEC). It was concluded that the real exchange variables, brazilian income, income U.S., trade balance bilateral Brazil-United States has a long term relationship and expected signs, as economic theory postules, and income elasticities, especially in the U.S, are elastic and more important than the elasticity of the real exchange (inelastic) to explain the trade balance in the long run between the two countries. This indicates that to occur a reversal in the pattern of deficit trade balances of the last three years, the slowdown in income growth in Brazil and / or the resumption of US income growth is more important than a devaluation. Nevertheless, the Marshall-Lerner condition is satisfied and the J curve phenomenon not / O presente trabalho tem como objetivo principal analisar empiricamente, por meio das estimativas das elasticidades preço e renda, o comportamento do saldo da balança comercial entre Brasil e EUA, entre janeiro de 1990 e de outubro 2011. As abordagens teóricas das Elasticidades e da Absorção fornecem as relações teóricas para os determinantes do saldo comercial, permitindo a construção de uma estrutura funcional para a investigação empírica. Os trabalhos empíricos sobre o assunto demonstram que, recentemente, a forma de agregação dos dados e o desenvolvimento de novos métodos econométricos, considerados por muitos pesquisadores mais apropriados para variáveis em que não se tem certeza sobre a sua exogeneidade, impulsionaram o surgimento de novos trabalhos sobre o saldo da balança comercial. A metodologia utilizada é a técnica de cointegração multivariada de Johansen e os modelos de vetores autorregressivos (VAR) e de vetores de correção de erros (VEC). Concluiu-se que as variáveis câmbio real, renda brasileira, renda americana e saldo comercial bilateral Brasil-EUA mantêm uma relação de longo prazo e sinais esperados, como postula a teoria econômica, e as elasticidades rendas, sobretudo a americana, são elásticas e mais importantes do que a elasticidade do câmbio real (inelástico) para explicar o saldo comercial no longo prazo entre esses dois países. Isso indica que, para que haja uma reversão do padrão de saldos deficitários dos últimos três anos, a redução do ritmo de crescimento da renda brasileira e/ou a retomada do crescimento da renda americana é mais importante do que uma desvalorização cambial. Não obstante, a condição Marshall-Lerner foi satisfeita e o fenômeno da Curva J não