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Economic Inequality: Causes, Consequences, and Measurement Issues. / An Empirical Contribution.Scholl, Nathalie 27 June 2006 (has links)
(Un-)gleichheit und Gerechtigkeit waren schon immer Kernbestandteil eines jeden politischen Konzeptes, welches das Wohl der Menschen in den Mittelpunkt rückte. Die Idee der Gleichheit ist so alt wie die der Demokratie selbst und neben instrumentellen Gründen, aus denen man (Un-)gleichheit schätzen oder ablehnen kann, ist die Existenz einer inhärenten Abneigung von Ungleichheit inzwischen ein allgemein akzeptiertes Faktum innerhalb der volkswirtschaftlichen Disziplin. Diese Dissertation trägt zur daraus folgenden Debatte um die Ursachen, Auswirkungen, und die Messung von Ungleichheit bei. Die Arbeit besteht aus drei Aufsätzen, welche empirische Untersuchungen in einem breit definierten Spektrum von wirtschaftlicher Ungleichheit – welches sowohl Löhne aus nicht-selbstständiger Arbeit, als auch breiter gefasste Einkommenskonzepte umfasst – enthalten.
Was sind die Faktoren, welche zu einem Anstieg oder einer Verringerung von Ungleichheit innerhalb eines Landes führen und welche Auswirkungen hat diese höhere oder geringere Ungleichheit für dessen langfristige wirtschaftliche Entwicklung? Es wäre anmaßend zu behaupten, allgemeingültige Antworten auf diese wichtigen Fragen innerhalb der folgenden drei Aufsätze geben zu können. Diese Dissertation versucht vielmehr, Erklärungen für bestimmte Teilaspekte zu liefern.
In Aufsatz 1 beschäftige ich mich mit dem Wirtschaftswachstum, eine der wohl wichtigsten Konsequenzen von Ungleichheit was die langfristige Wirkung auf das materielle Wohlbefinden eines Landes angeht. Im Zuge dessen befasse ich mich eingehend mit der noch immer ungelösten Kontroverse darüber, ob Ungleichheit zu mehr Wachstum beiträgt.
Im Folgenden vertiefe ich dann die Diskussion über die Messung von Ungleichheit in Aufsatz 2 und führe damit eine Debatte fort, auf die bereits Essay 1 unvermeidlich stößt. Ich konzentriere mich dabei auf ein Maß für die Lohnverteilung in einer der Hauptsektoren der Wirtschaft, der verarbeitenden Industrie. Die Debatte über die richtige Messung von Ungleichheit ist nicht trivial: Weder die Ursachen, noch die Folgen von Ungleichheit können untersucht werden, ohne in die Details verschiedener zur Verfügung stehender Maße gehen zu müssen. Die Verfügbarkeit geeigneter Daten auf Länderebene und über die Zeit ist Voraussetzung für empirische Studien zu diesen Themen. Tatsächlich ist einer der Gründe dafür, dass es noch immer keinen Konsens darüber gibt, ob die Ungleichheit zwischen den Ländern in den letzten 50 Jahren gestiegen oder gefallen ist, die Vielfalt nicht nur der Maße, sondern auch der diesen zugrundeliegenden Konzepten, die in unterschiedlichen Studien verwendet werden. Die verschiedenen Maße reagieren ungleich stark auf bestimmte Bereiche der Einkommensverteilung und können daher zu unterschiedlichen Schlussfolgerungen darüber, in welchen Ländern es mehr und welche weniger Ungleichheit gibt, oder über Änderungen von Ungleichheit im Laufe der Zeit führen. Aus einem ähnlichen Grund ist die Literatur noch immer uneins über den Einfluss von Ungleichheit auf das Wirtschaftswachstum: Aufgrund der Nutzung unterschiedlicher Datenquellen sowie durch Mängel in den zugrundeliegenden Daten selbst ist die Vergleichbarkeit der verschiedenen Studien stark eingeschränkt.
Unberührt davon, dass die Debatte um den Einfluss von Ungleichheit auf das Wirtschaftswachstum ungelöst bleibt, ist es wichtig zu wissen, welche Faktoren Ungleichheit verursachen oder verschlimmern (und welche dies nicht tun). Aufsatz 3 untersucht einen der in der öffentlichen Debatte häufiger zitierten Gründe für den Anstieg der Ungleichheit, den Handel. Ich untersuche empirisch die potentiellen Faktoren, die mit Handel einhergehen und zu steigender Ungleichheit führen können. Ich beschränke mich hierbei auf den Bestandteil von Ungleichheit, der laut Handelstheorien unmittelbar relevant für die Auswirkungen von Handel ist: die Verteilung der Löhne. Dabei verwende ich den in Aufsatz 2 behandelten Index der Lohnungleichheit in der verarbeitenden Industrie in einem der wenigen Kontexte, in denen dieser, wie ich in Aufsatz 2 argumentiere, angemessen ist.
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The measurement and decomposition of achievement equity - an introduction to its concepts and methods including a multiyear empirical study of sixth grade reading scoresRogers, Francis H., III 29 September 2004 (has links)
No description available.
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Inequality in perspective : rethinking inequality measurement, minimum wages and elites in MexicoKrozer, Alice January 2019 (has links)
The role of inequality in development has been the subject of long-standing debates in academic and policy circles. Notwithstanding disagreements about exactly how the two are linked, conventional wisdom agrees that inequality is an objective 'fact' that can be measured free from ideological considerations. New data detect trends towards higher inequality, weaker economic positions for those at the bottom, and a concentration of wealth at the very top of the distribution in most regions. Inequality studies as currently practiced are ill-equipped to accommodate the empirical changes and the resulting theoretical implications. Putting an end to over half a century of mainstream consensus assuming that inequality would automatically recede with developmental progress, the discipline needs rethinking. My thesis proposes a new research agenda for studying inequality that is not only able to integrate these empirical developments, but which also challenges what has been taken for granted: that inequality just is, independently of context, time and observer. Instead, it proposes that along with its objective existence, inequality is a relational phenomenon subjectively experienced relative to a particular context. In five interconnected Sections, my dissertation challenges conventional views of how inequality looks, how it is seen, and what can be done about it, especially in developing countries. The study focuses on the ways in which inequality is perceived, and how it is perpetuated. After an introduction to the subject in Section I, Section II investigates how inadequate measurement perpetuates inequality, proposing a new indicator that shows that inequality is largely defined in the extreme ends of the income distribution. Section III examines the reproduction of inequality at the bottom, contrasting minimum wage policies over recent decades in Mexico with those of other countries in Latin America. In light of a political economy resistant to change, Section IV scrutinizes Mexican elites, exploring how inequality is perceived from the very top of the income distribution, how this affects policy-making and, subsequently, measured inequality levels. Section V concludes by outlining the theoretical and practical implications of my findings.
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Analyse économique des inégalités environnementales : Fondements normatifs, mesures et application au contexte brésilien / Economic analysis of environmental inequalities : Normative foundations, measurements and application to the Brazilian contextBerthe, Alexandre 25 November 2015 (has links)
Cette thèse étudie les inégalités environnementales dans un objectif de justice sociale. La première partie propose une définition interdisciplinaire de ces inégalités afin de capter son caractère multidimensionnel et de montrer son utilité en économie de l’environnement et en économie écologique. À partir de la littérature en philosophie économique, le caractère juste ou injuste des inégalités environnementales est ensuite analysé en mobilisant différentes conceptions égalitaristes de la justice et en considérant l’existence d’autres objectifs sociétaux. À la suite de ce travail théorique, la seconde partie s’articule autour d’une application aux enjeux de l’accès à l’eau et à l’assainissement au Brésil. Après avoir présenté la situation relative à ces services dans le contexte brésilien, les déterminants socioéconomiques et institutionnels de cet accès sont identifiés par des analyses économétriques sur des données à l’échelle des ménages. Ces analyses permettent de mettre en lumière des déterminants au cœur des problématiques de justice environnementale comme le revenu, l’ethnicité, mais aussi le rôle des États en ayant recours à des modèles multi-niveaux. En utilisant un indicateur d’accès à l’eau et à l’assainissement construit à partir d’une analyse factorielle, les inégalités associées à ces services sont ensuite mesurées par différentes méthodes correspondant à chacune des conceptions de la justice développées dans la première partie / This thesis studies the environmental inequalities in an objective of social justice. The first part offers an interdisciplinary definition of these inequalities in order to catch their multidimensional nature and to show their usefulness in environmental economics and ecological economics. Based on a philosophy of economics perspective, the fairness of environmental inequalities is analysed by using different egalitarian conceptions of justice with a consideration of the existence of other societal objectives. Following this theoretical development, the second part is devoted to an analysis of the issues of access to water and sanitation services in the context of Brazil. After a discussion over the situation related to the water and sanitation sector in Brazil, the socioeconomic and institutional determinants of the access to these services are identified using econometric analyses at the household level. These analyses enable to expose key determinants in the perspective of environmental justice including income level and ethnicity. In addition, they show the role of the state level thanks to the use of multilevel models. By using an indicator of the access to water and sanitation services elaborated through a factor analysis, the inequalities associated to these services are then measured by different methods which correspond to each conception of justice developed in the first part.
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Essays on Equality of opportunityPIGNATARO, GIUSEPPE 29 January 2009 (has links)
La letteratura economica che affianca il principio di eguaglianza delle opportunità suggerisce l’introduzione dei valori libertari e di autonomia nella valutazione del benessere sociale. Questa teoria non si concentra sulla semplice eguaglianza tra i cittadini in termini di reddito, salute, utilità ma valuta l’eguaglianza delle loro opportunità affinché esiti plurimi possano essere raggiunti unicamente sulla base dell’impegno dei singoli individui. Nel primo capitolo ripercorriamo attraverso una breve carrellata le indicazioni provenienti da economisti e filosofi della politica che hanno trattato questo argomento nel corso degli ultimi decenni. Nel secondo capitolo ci occupiamo della misurazione della eguaglianza delle opportunità studiando differenti metodologie che coinvolgono l’indice di Atkinson e i suoi sviluppi in termini di eguaglianza. Il terzo capitolo prosegue invece attraverso una analisi empirica sulla salute. I risultati suggeriscono come le decisioni individuali riguardanti il fumo, considerato come un fattore di responsabilità, influenzino gravemente la salute degli individui rispetto alla loro condizione familiare. Il capitolo 4 studia invece l’interazione tra eguaglianza delle opportunità ed efficienza nel mercato del credito dimostrando come, oltre ad una palese violazione del principio egalitario, esistano anche problematiche di efficienza come surrogato delle dinamiche discriminatorie dovute alle asimmetrie informative. / The economic literature on equality of opportunity suggests non-welfarist foundations of social choice introducing the concepts of freedoms and liberties of individuals in the assessment of social welfare. The opportunity egalitarian principle does not focus on equality of outcomes but essentially on equality of means to realize those outcomes, i.e., it places some responsibilities on individuals to decide how much effort to pay in order to exploit the opportunity offered to them. This concept refers to be a part of conventional wisdom and has a long tradition and wide acceptance. On these grounds chapter 1 is devoted to a review of the most recent research on equality of opportunity. Some economists and political philosophers have argued that, in examining distributional questions, instead of focusing on differences in observed incomes or current levels of welfare, it is more appropriate to focus on the choice or opportunity sets that individuals face. Chapter 2 focus on the measurement of the degree of equality of opportunity based on alternative decompositions of the Atkinson index of equality according to welfare theory approach. In chapter 3 we address a measurement in health using data from the British Household Panel Survey (1996-2005). Our results suggest a great incidence of the direct effect of the individual behaviors in terms of lifestyles reducing the indirect contribution of social background. Public health programs are more likely to produce results if targeted on individual responsibility. A different point at issue is tackled in chapter 4 where we introduce the relationship between equality of opportunity and efficiency in the credit market. We show that richer individuals participate more in the credit market even when relatively more averse to effort violating the equality of opportunity principle. Moreover, we find that marginal richer borrowers exert less effort than poorer ones in equilibrium. Empirical evidence in Italy points to a limited impact of policy measures aimed at increasing credit opportunities without targeting accurately the beneficiaries.
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Normative and quantitative analysis of educational inequalities, with reference to BrazilDomingues Waltenberg, Fabio 02 July 2007 (has links)
The existence of substantial socio-economic inequalities is one of the most fundamental features of the Brazilian society. Although educational inequality is not the only source of such socio-economic inequalities, it plays a major role, particularly regarding income inequality, both for current and for future generations. Acquiring a better understanding of the patterns of educational inequalities in Brazil is thus a relevant research topic, with implications for policy-making.
The first part of the thesis contains a conceptual discussion in which we try to determine an appropriate definition of educational justice. We advocate the use of “essential educational achievements” as the relevant “currency of educational justice” and we defend a version of “equality of educational opportunity” in which the responsibility that is assigned to individuals increases as they grow up.
While a remarkable quantitative improvement has taken place recently in Brazil, the situation concerning the quality of education is less clear. To explore qualitative aspects, in the second part, we turn to pupils' performance in standardized tests. Applying usual distributional assessment tools to such data, we map the intensity of educational inequalities in the country. Using recently-developed indices of inequality of opportunity, we assess the fairness of the Brazilian schooling system. Thus we identify both the areas where educational inequality is more intense, and those where educational unfairness is more severe.
In the third part, we use econometric methods to investigate how the reallocation of educational resources could contribute to moving Brazilian educational system towards educational fairness. First, we evaluate the effect of teachers' wages on pupils' achievement, and our analysis suggests there is scope for Brazilian public schools to improve their human resources policies, with potential benefits accruing to low-performing pupils. Then, we analyze the reallocations of educational resources required to equalize educational opportunities, and we find that the redistribution of non-monetary inputs could considerably reduce the magnitude of the financial redistribution needed.
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