The purpose of this thesis is to contribute to understanding of the effect of organizational context on supply chain integration. One result is a context- based model that can provide support for practitioners regarding what level of integration to establish with suppliers and customers. Given the notion that most organizations are dependent on other organizations, it leads to a need for not only cross-functional integration but also for integration across organizational boundaries. However, in many organizations the level of integration with suppliers and customers is often inappropriate, inefficient and limited mainly to dyadic integration of order processing and operational scheduling. The existing literature provides only a limited insight concerning the essential circumstances for the integration and the slow growth of the implementation of inter-organizational integration has been attributed primarily to lack of guidelines for creating business relationships with supply chain partners. In the literature, “the more integration the better performance” solutions have often been presented without consideration of very complex internal and external organizational environments of involved companies. During recent years, questions have been raised regarding the nature of integration with suppliers and customers and the extent to which it can be accomplished. Instead of all-encompassing integration, selectivity has been suggested in terms of what level of integration should be applied to each link of the supply chain. The problem for an organization is not to find “one best way”; rather it is to search for solutions that advance integration and differentiation simultaneously. Preferable level of integration depends on many contextual factors associated with e.g. focal company, industry, competitive environment, and nature and type of products. However, in the previous research the focus has primarily been on studying single or limited sets of contextual factors and their impact on integration. These results are often fragmented, leading to multiple frameworks and models. A unifying model providing recommendations in terms of what level of integration to establish with suppliers and customers considering organization’s specific circumstances is desirable. In this study, a large number of contextual factors of integration with suppliers and customers were identified and structured. Additionally, the relationship between these factors and level of the integration was clarified. The study is based on the Grounded Theory methodology. To understand the effect of context on level of integration, two supply chains (triads) from two different industries - medical devices and fast moving consumer goods - have been selected as core samples. Findings are based on in-depth analysis of qualitative data obtained from fourteen interviews with practitioners such as CEOs, SC managers, sales managers, purchasing managers, and logisticians. Following the Grounded Theory methodology, the analysis of the collected data was conducted in three major rounds divided into six steps. The results were compared with a theoretical frame of reference. The main result of this study is a model that describes the relationship between contextual factors and integration activities with suppliers and customers. The findings suggest that the assumption of a fit between context and integration of the Structural Contingency Theory is applicable also from an inter-organizational perspective. The model can be applied to contextual factors both external and internal to an organization. It is supplemented by structured lists of identified contextual factors and integration activities. Recalling the notion of fit between value of contextual factors and level of integration with suppliers and customers, it can be stated that even low levels of integration can be appropriate as long as they are consistent with the values of certain factors representing organizational context. Furthermore, the model adds to existing models and frameworks as it can be used as a diagnostic tool. Applying this model, an organization can evaluate if current levels of integration fit with the corresponding values of contextual factors. Furthermore, the model support identification of misfits between values of contextual factors and present level of integration and it provides an opportunity to adjust or reevaluate the current levels of integration. The model, in combination with the lists of contextual factors and integration activities, can then be used to develop corrective actions in order to regain the desired fit. Intention of this study was to identify and analyze integration of triads in the studied supply chains, commonly known as Supply chain integration. However, this scope of integration has not been found, which is in line with previous research indicating that triadic integration is rare. To reflect the actual situation in more accurate way it is suggested to use the term Inter-organizational integration, implying dyadic scope of integration, rather than Supply chain integration.

Purpose: The purpose is to investigate and analyse the impact of intra-organizational purchasing synergy on periodic price adjustment (PPA) process. Specifically, paper provides a view on how  purchasing process synergy through an operational IT platform can increase process reengineering opportunities within PPA.  Methodology: So, to fulfil the purpose of the research, the in-depth case study approach is chosen as a strategy that goes along with exploratory nature of the study, aimed at gaining rich insights in the context in which the phenomenon happens. Findings: The findings emphasize the importance of global process standardization and balanced governance among regional affiliates in successful implementation of PPA process synergy. We also identify a set of specific process reengineering needs  in PPA such as company wide information sharing,  standardization of part specifications and cost bases, and joint world-wide cost reduction activity within global buyer community (BGC). Then it is observed that all these process reengineering initiatives will not be possible without solid and flexible IT infrastructure  to improve buyer productivity and support their further development.   Research limitations/implications: Primarily, this study was conducted on single in-depth case study which makes it difficult to completely generalize the findings. Next, there are many factors impacting intra-organizational pricing processes besides global synergy projects. In fact, regional and organizational contexts are of high importance, which are addressed but not analysed in detail in the current study.   Practical implications: Together, the findings contribute to our understanding of the step-by-step pricing activity from industrial customer perspective and how buyers can improve cost competitiveness through various tangible and commercial part cost reduction activities.   Originality/value: Current study has addressed the pricing process from industrial customer perspective. It has two main theoretical contributions: (1) Detailed step-by-step description of PPA process between OEMs and their suppliers happening after SOP; and (2) groundwork for implementation guidance on intra-organizational price revision process synergy.

Cette thèse explore le rôle de l'intégration inter-organisationnelle et de l'intégration produits en tant que deux dimensions constitutives de l'intégration des fournisseurs dans le développement de produits, au moyen de trois essais. Le premier essai est une revue systématique de la littérature sur l'intégration des fournisseurs. Il identifie l'intégration des produits comme une dimension qui est rarement incorporée dans la conceptualisation de l'intégration des fournisseurs. Afin de combler les lacunes identifiées dans la revue de la littérature, nous construisons un modèle conceptuel qui intègre les concepts de la théorie du traitement de l'information et de la théorie de la modularité. Le deuxième essai opérationnalise ce modèle conceptuel au moyen d’une étude de cas ancrée dans une entreprise de l’industrie de la défense. Cet essai démontre que la gouvernance de la relation entre un acheteur et un fournisseur est liée à un concept peu étudié dans la littérature sur la conception des produits, à savoir les produits d’interfaces. Le troisième essai est un développement théorique sur les produits d’interfaces comme éléments déterminants de la conception du produit et de la structure organisationnelle. Cet essai définit théoriquement les propriétés micro-fondatrices des interfaces et fournit des exemples tirés des secteurs des télécommunications, de l’automobile et de l’aéronautique comme évidence de leur existence. Cette thèse souligne l'importance des interfaces des produits comme des éléments qui peuvent augmenter les exigences du traitement de l'information lors de l’intégration des fournisseurs dans le développement des produits. / This thesis explores the role of inter-organizational integration and product integration as two constituent dimensions of supplier integration into product development with three essays. The first essay is a systematic review of literature on supplier integration. It identifies product integration as a dimension that is scarcely incorporated in the conceptualization of supplier integration. In order to fill the gaps identified in the literature review, we build a conceptual model that incorporates concepts from Information Processing Theory and Modularity Theory. The second essay investigates this conceptual model with an embedded case study in a defense company. This essay shows that the governance of the relationship between a buyer and a supplier is related to an understudied concept in the product design literature, namely product interfaces. The third essay is a theoretical development of product interfaces as an element that determines product and organization design. This essay defines micro-foundational interface properties theoretically and provides examples from the telecommunications, automotive and aircraft industries as supportive evidence. Overall, this thesis points out the importance of product interfaces as elements that can increase information processing requirements of supplier integration into product development.

Abstract The infrastructure and construction industry has for decades suffered from problems such as cost overruns, delays, disputes and low productivity. To transform old adversarial practices and industrial culture into more collaborative and innovative ways of working, new operational models for project delivery have been introduced. A project alliance is among the models developed to improve infrastructure and construction project performance by addressing problems of fragmentation and lack of integration. However, the growing body of conceptual and empirical research on project alliances within the field of project management does not include any in-depth investigation of the capability requirements and relevant processes for managing alliance projects. The goal of this dissertation is to contribute to the project alliance literature within the field of project management by exploring the capabilities needed by an inter-organizational alliance project organization and participating organizations to manage project alliances in the infrastructure and construction context. The research adopts a qualitative approach, utilizing the case study method and in-depth interviews as research methods. The empirical results, which relate to the first project alliances in the Finnish infrastructure and construction industry, highlight the importance of the alliance project organization’s collective capabilities for managing project alliances. Among these capabilities, inter-organizational integration management, collaborative project identity formation and opportunity management are of particular importance. In addition, each participating organization requires specific project alliance capability, which comprises both the ability to implement key activities over the project life cycle and the skills required by project-based organizations and participating individuals. Together, these organizational and project network-level capabilities form the basis for managing such projects. / Tiivistelmä Infrastruktuuri- ja rakennusteollisuus on kärsinyt kustannusten ylityksistä, myöhästymisistä, erimielisyyksistä ja heikosta tuottavuudesta jo kymmenien vuosien ajan. Jotta vanhat, vastakkainasetteluun perustuvat käytännöt ja toimintakulttuuri voitaisiin muuttaa, uusia projektien toteutusmalleja on otettu käyttöön. Projektiallianssi on yksi yhteistoiminnallisista malleista, joka on kehitetty vähentämään toimialan sirpaloitumista ja edistämään integroitumista tavoitteena infrastruktuuri- ja rakennusalan projektien suorituskyvyn parantaminen. Lisääntyvästä konseptuaalisesta ja empiirisestä tutkimuksesta huolimatta, projektiallianssiin kohdistuva tutkimus ei ole tarkastellut organisaatioiden kyvykkyysvaatimuksia ja keskeisimpiä allianssin johtamiseen liittyviä prosesseja riittävän syvällisesti. Väitöskirjan tavoite on edistää projektiallianssin tutkimusta tuottamalla uutta tieto allianssihankkeisiin osallistuvien organisaatioiden kyvykkyysvaatimuksista sekä yhteisistä kyvykkyyksistä, joita projektiorganisaatio tarvitsee allianssiprojektin hallintaan infrastruktuuri- ja rakennusalalla. Tutkimus on toteutettu laadullisena tapaus- ja haastattelututkimuksena. Suomen ensimmäisistä infrastruktuuri- ja rakennusalan allianssihankkeista saadut empiiriset tulokset korostavat allianssiprojektiorganisaation yhteisten kyvykkyyksien merkitystä. Kyvykkyysvaatimukset kohdistuvat erityisesti organisaatioiden välisen integraation johtamiseen, yhteistyötä korostavan projekti-identiteetin muodostamiseen ja mahdollisuuksien hallintaan allianssiprojektissa. Näiden yhteisten kyvykkyyksien lisäksi jokainen organisaatio tarvitsee projektiallianssikyvykkyyden, joka koostuu allianssihankkeiden käynnistämiseen ja hallintaan tarvittavista taidoista ja kyvystä toteuttaa eri elinkaaren vaiheen kannalta keskeisiä toimintoja. Hankkeeseen osallistuvan organisaation projektiallianssikyvykkyys ja yhteiset projektiverkoston kyvykkyydet luovat perustan allianssihankkeen hallinnalle.