For many years, linguists, ESL writing teachers, and especially students have puzzled over the phenomenon where non-native English writers' sentences are grammatically correct, but their paragraphs and complete essays often appear illogical to native English speaking readers. From the perspective of Kaplan's original contrastive rhetoric theory where American rhetoric is "linear," Korean L2 writers' apparently circular rhetoric causes problems. Even though Korean writers are trying to write paragraphs that are logical for native English readers, this illogical output results in Korean ESL students being perceived as poor writers. In order to discover more about the nature of the rhetorical problems Korean ESL writers face, this study reports on a close contrastive analysis of a corpus consisting of 25 Freshmen Korean ESL students' unedited, first draft essays and 25 Freshmen native-English speaking American Freshmen's unedited, first draft essays randomly collected from a series of 1st year writing classes at a U.S.-based university. The analysis focused on areas where the logical flow breaks down from a native English reader's perspective. The Topical Structure Analytical approach (TSA), developed by Lautamatti (1987), was used to analyze the data. Results show that both American and Korean Freshmen have difficulty controlling topical subjects and discourse topics in their writing. Instead, they often introduced irrelevant subtopics that did not advance overall topic development, making their writing difficult for general readers to follow. The key finding of the study shows that to overcome these rhetorical weaknesses, both Korean and American Freshmen need to be educated in academic writing regardless of their first language.

Suresh Canagarajah, John Trimbur, Bruce Horner, and others argue that U.S. scholars must begin imagining their academic institutions as part of larger global English conversations, which would involve expanding Western perceptions of "good writing" to allow for the cultural and ideological differences implied by the term "global." Horner and Trimbur, for instance, urge compositionists to take an "internationalist perspective" to writing instruction, to ask, "whose English and whose interests it serves" in relation to the "dynamics of globalization" (624). To better understand what it means to write internationally in English, I conducted ethnographic research at the Indonesian Consortium for Religious Studies (ICRS), a self-identified "Indonesian, international, interreligious Ph.D. program," in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. My ten-month ethnographic project, which drew from teacher research, interviews with students and faculty, and student texts, suggests that English, though linked to Western cultural imperialism--and thus Western ideology-- can no longer be considered solely a Western language, useful only for Western purposes and audiences. The first section of this dissertation focuses on institutional and individual identity construction in relation to ICRS's local-global goals and what the program's language policy terms the "painful decision" to adopt English despite being "aware of the imperialism of English." By placing Indonesian language history in conversation with faculty and student interviews, this section suggests that language, whether local or global, is never entirely "authentic" or "imperialist"--that English, despite its imperialist implications, is also capable of representing Indonesian identities. The second section of this dissertation shifts from identity negotiation to frictions involved with the actual writing process, particularly in relation to culture, audience, and rhetorical choice. Drawing from Bakhtin's notion of diachronic audience, this section explores the complexity involved in determining "whose English" is appropriate given ICRS's Indonesian, yet international intentions and the multiple audiences, both local and global, suggested thereby. This section highlights cultural and material frictions students reported when moving between Indonesian and Western rhetorical traditions--and thus audiences-- while also highlighting how students re-articulate English as both local and global, Indonesian and international as they write to the multiple audiences suggested by English as an international language.

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<p>I den här uppsatsen har jag undersökt internkommunikationen på ett multikulturellt företag för att se hur olika kulturer visar sig i olika förhandlingsstilar. Mitt material har bestått av sexton mejl mellan en tysk och en svensk affärsman från det multikulturella företaget Volkswagen. Mina frågeställningar var:</p><p>1. Skiljer sig Sch och Joh:s sätt att formulera sig och vilken betydelse får det i så fall för förhandlingen? 2. Vilka förhandlingsstilar används? Vad får de för konsekvenser? 3. Hade genomtänkta retoriska strategier kunnat effektivisera förhandlingens gång och i så fall vilka?</p><p>För att svara på frågorna har jag gjort en stilanalys kompletterad av en strukturell analys. Jag har även gjort en förhandlingsanalys och till sist undersökt de två kulturerna genom en jämförelse. Min uppsats lutar sig mot Hofstedes teori om kulturella dimensioner samt Ghauris teori om förhandlingens tre faser, för att nämna några.</p><p> </p><p>Viktiga slutsatser är att det finns större och mer betydelsefulla skillnader mellan tyskar och svenskar än väntat. Jag har också kommit fram till att kurser i förhandlingsteknik kan visa sig vara lönsamma för multikulturella företag och det är det jag vill förmedla med den här uppsatsen. </p><p> </p> / <p><p>In this essay I want to investigate the internal communication of an transcultural company to see how different cultures are shown in different styles of negotiation. I have been looking at sixteen emails between a German businessman and a Swedish businessman, both working at the transcultural company Volkswagen.</p><p>The essay’s research questions are: 1. Do the German and the Swede differ when it comes to manner of speaking, and if so, how does that effect the negotiation?  2. Which styles do they use in negotiation? What kind of consequences do the styles cause? 3. Would carefully prepared rhetorical strategies make the negotiation more effective, and in that case, which strategies would that be?</p><p>To answer these questions I have made a stylistic and a structural analysis, followed by an analysis of the negotiation style and strategies. At last I studied the two cultures and made a comparison between them. I have built my essay on the theory of cultural dimensions by Hofstede and Ghauri’s idea about the phases of negotiation, to mention a few.</p>Conclusions I’ve made are that there are bigger differences between Germans and Swedes then I expected. I’ve also seen that education in negotiation could be profitable for transcultural companies, which I with this essay would like to convey. </p>

I den här uppsatsen har jag undersökt internkommunikationen på ett multikulturellt företag för att se hur olika kulturer visar sig i olika förhandlingsstilar. Mitt material har bestått av sexton mejl mellan en tysk och en svensk affärsman från det multikulturella företaget Volkswagen. Mina frågeställningar var: 1. Skiljer sig Sch och Joh:s sätt att formulera sig och vilken betydelse får det i så fall för förhandlingen? 2. Vilka förhandlingsstilar används? Vad får de för konsekvenser? 3. Hade genomtänkta retoriska strategier kunnat effektivisera förhandlingens gång och i så fall vilka? För att svara på frågorna har jag gjort en stilanalys kompletterad av en strukturell analys. Jag har även gjort en förhandlingsanalys och till sist undersökt de två kulturerna genom en jämförelse. Min uppsats lutar sig mot Hofstedes teori om kulturella dimensioner samt Ghauris teori om förhandlingens tre faser, för att nämna några.   Viktiga slutsatser är att det finns större och mer betydelsefulla skillnader mellan tyskar och svenskar än väntat. Jag har också kommit fram till att kurser i förhandlingsteknik kan visa sig vara lönsamma för multikulturella företag och det är det jag vill förmedla med den här uppsatsen. / In this essay I want to investigate the internal communication of an transcultural company to see how different cultures are shown in different styles of negotiation. I have been looking at sixteen emails between a German businessman and a Swedish businessman, both working at the transcultural company Volkswagen. The essay’s research questions are: 1. Do the German and the Swede differ when it comes to manner of speaking, and if so, how does that effect the negotiation?  2. Which styles do they use in negotiation? What kind of consequences do the styles cause? 3. Would carefully prepared rhetorical strategies make the negotiation more effective, and in that case, which strategies would that be? To answer these questions I have made a stylistic and a structural analysis, followed by an analysis of the negotiation style and strategies. At last I studied the two cultures and made a comparison between them. I have built my essay on the theory of cultural dimensions by Hofstede and Ghauri’s idea about the phases of negotiation, to mention a few. Conclusions I’ve made are that there are bigger differences between Germans and Swedes then I expected. I’ve also seen that education in negotiation could be profitable for transcultural companies, which I with this essay would like to convey.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / This thesis investigates, from a rhetoric-contrastive perspective, the uses and functions of rhetoric mitigation metadiscursive marks (here hedging devices) in research articles produced by Brazilian and German authors and understood as specialized texts (HOFFMANN, 1998), inserted in the expert-expert communicative context (PEARSON, 1998). To achieve this goal, the present study aims at answering the following questions: (a) how often are hedging strategies employed in the introduction and conclusion sections? (b) what is the relationship between the number of hedges in each subcorpus and the rhetorical characteristics of each analyzed section? (c) how often do the lexico-grammatical items performing the role of hedges appear in each subcorpus? The starting point for the investigation was the assumption that texts belonging to the same genre but written in different languages present striking rhetorical distinctions. Such differences in academic writing can be described by the use of hedges as discourse-pragmatic elements which characterize the "modus dicendi" of a given knowledge area; in the present case, Medicine. A corpus of 120 research articles from national and international medical journals was built, including texts written in German and Portuguese; the articles were collected from the CAPES periodics website. This corpus consists of 60 Medicine articles written in Portuguese and 60 articles written in German, divided into two subcorpora, namely, Corpus 1: Medicine-German and Corpus 2 : Medicine-Portuguese. The former is made of two subcorpora, (i) German Medicine Introduction (MAI) and (ii) German Medicine Discussion (MAD); the latter is also subdivided into two parts, (i) Portuguese Medicine Introduction (MPI) and (ii) Portuguese Medicine Discussion (MPD). The data were analyzed and processed in accordance with the Corpus Linguistics methodological principles, in an instrumental application of its methods. The data were treated with the help of a linguistic analysis software called WordSmith Tools (SCOTT, 1997), version 3.0, especially the Wordlist and Concord tools. In order to investigate and analyze the uses and functions of the hedges, from the Interactional Metadiscourse (HYLAND, 2005) and Intercultural Rhetoric (CONNOR, 2008) perspectives, given the corpora collected, we have proposed a classification model, in accordance with the taxonomies proposed by Hyland (2005), Cabrera (2004) and MartÃn-MartÃn (2008). The results of the analysis have pointed to the occurrence of a largest number of hedges, in both languages, in the discussion section of the articles, followed by the introduction section. Both present a high number of occurrences of indetermination devices (epistemic expressions, such as modal verbs, lexical verbs, semi-auxiliary verbs, and modal adjectives / adverbs) and disagentivization (impersonal expressions, passive voice).We can therefore conclude that the authors of the Medicine research articles, both those in Portuguese and in German, employ the same amount of hedges in order to achieve the communicative purposes of the research paper genre, given the position the authors occupy in the academic community and the interpersonal relationship they wish to establish with the audience. This research contributes to minimize the gap in the studies on hedging under a contrastive perspective, based on corpora of scholarly texts in Portuguese and German in the Medicine area. / Esta tese investiga sob uma perspectiva retÃrico-contrastiva, os usos e as funÃÃes das marcas metadiscursivas de atenuaÃÃo retÃrica (hedges), em artigos de pesquisa, considerados, aqui, textos especializados (HOFFMANN, 1998), pertencentes ao contexto comunicativo: especialista-especialista (PEARSON, 1998), produzidos por autores (as) brasileiros (as) e alemÃes (as). Para cumprir tal objetivo, a pesquisa intenciona responder aos seguintes questionamentos: (a) qual a freqÃÃncia das estratÃgias de atenuaÃÃo retÃrica utilizadas nas seÃÃes introduÃÃo e conclusÃo? (b) qual a relaÃÃo existente entre o nÃmero de marcas metadiscursivas de atenuaÃÃo retÃrica em cada subcorpus e as caracterÃsticas retÃricas de cada seÃÃo em anÃlise? (c) qual a freqÃÃncia dos itens lÃxico-gramaticais que realizam as marcas metadiscursivas de atenuaÃÃo retÃrica em cada subcorpus. Para tanto, parte-se do pressuposto de que textos pertencentes a um mesmo gÃnero discursivo, porÃm escritos em lÃnguas distintas apresentam diferenÃas retÃricas marcantes. Tais diferenÃas no discurso acadÃmico escrito podem ser descritas pelo uso das marcas de atenuaÃÃo retÃrica como elemento discursivo-pragmÃtico caracterizador de um âmodus dicendiâ de uma determinada Ãrea do conhecimento, no caso, a Medicina. Para a investigaÃÃo dessas marcas de atenuaÃÃo, selecionamos um corpus composto por 120 artigos de pesquisa em Medicina de periÃdicos nacionais e internacionais, coletados, no site de periÃdicos da CAPES, escritos em lÃngua alemà e em lÃngua portuguesa. O referido corpus de estudo compÃe-se de: 60 artigos em Medicina escritos em portuguÃs e 60 artigos escritos em lÃngua alemÃ, divididos em dois subcorpora, a saber, Corpus 1- Medicina AlemÃo, composto por dois subcorpora: (i) Medicina AlemÃo IntroduÃÃo (MAI) e (ii) Medicina-AlemÃo DiscussÃo (MAD) , Corpus 2- Medicina PortuguÃs, com dois subcorpora: (i) Medicina PortuguÃs IntroduÃÃo (MPI) e (ii) Medicina PortuguÃs DiscussÃo (MPD). Na anÃlise e tratamento dos dados, utilizamos os princÃpios metodolÃgicos da LingÃÃstica de Corpus, aplicando seu carÃter instrumental. Para avaliar os dados dessa pesquisa, utilizamos o programa computacional de anÃlise lingÃÃstica, WordSmith Tools (SCOTT, 1997), versÃo 3.0, as ferramentas Wordlist e o Concord. Para investigar e analisar os usos e as funÃÃes das marcas metadiscursivas de atenuaÃÃo, sob uma perspectiva do Metadiscurso Interacional (HYLAND, 2005) e da RetÃrica Intercultural (CONNOR, 2008), tendo em vista os corpora em anÃlise, propomos um modelo classificatÃrio, em conformidade com as taxonomias propostas por Hyland (2005), Cabrera (2004) e MartÃn-MartÃn (2008). Conforme os resultados, a seÃÃo de discussÃo concentra o maior nÃmero de ocorrÃncias das marcas de atenuaÃÃo retÃrica nas duas lÃnguas, seguida da seÃÃo de introduÃÃo. Ambas apresentam um elevado nÃmero de ocorrÃncias das estratÃgias de indeterminaÃÃo (as expressÃes epistÃmicas, como verbos modais, lexicais, semi-auxiliares) e os adjetivos/advÃrbios modais,) e desagentivaÃÃo (as expressÃes impessoais, voz passiva). A partir desses resultados, conclui-se que os autores tanto em portuguÃs como em alemÃo nos artigos de pesquisa na Medicina fazem uso na mesma proporÃÃo de estratÃgias de atenuaÃÃo para atender aos propÃsitos comunicativos do gÃnero textual-artigo de pesquisa, como tambÃm pela posiÃÃo que ocupam na comunidade acadÃmica e pela relaÃÃo interpessoal que desejam estabelecer com a audiÃncia. Essa pesquisa contribui para minimizar a lacuna existente com relaÃÃo aos estudos sÃcio-retÃricos das marcas metadiscursivas de atenuaÃÃo, sob uma perspectiva contrastiva, em corpora escritos em portuguÃs e alemÃo de artigos acadÃmicos na Medicina.

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