Wegen ihrer großen Bedeutung für die Verfügbarkeit der Stellwerke thematisiert die vorliegende Arbeit den Teilbereich der Energieversorgungsanlagen von Stellwerken. Ausgehend von aktuellen Fragestellungen werden neun Forschungsfragen definiert. Zunächst werden die Grundlagen sowie der Forschungsstand im Bereich der Energieversorgung untersucht. Anschließend erfolgt eine Analyse der historischen Entwicklung der Energieversorgung in der Stellwerkstechnik auf Grundlage einer umfangreichen Literaturrecherche. Darauf folgend werden aktuelle und zukünftige Entwicklungen auf diesem Gebiet untersucht. Im Hauptteil der Arbeit erfolgt eine Fokussierung auf die Energieversorgung von Relaisstellwerken. Die derzeit eingesetzten Anlagen werden hinsichtlich Technik, Altersstruktur und Zustand nebst Störungen analysiert. Dazu werden umfangreiche statistische Auswertungen vorgenommen. Im Anschluss wird ein universelles Erneuerungskonzept zur Ausrüstung der vorhandenen Stellwerke mit modernen Energieversorgungen vorgestellt. Durch die Untersuchung von Entscheidungskriterien wird ermittelt, wann unterschiedliche Erneuerungsvarianten eingesetzt werden sollten. In einer Lebenszykluskostenrechnung (LCC) mit anschließender Wirtschaftlichkeitsrechnung (WKR) werden diese Umbauvarianten monetär bewertet und miteinander verglichen. / Due to its importance for the availability of interlockings, this PhD thesis focuses on the part of the interlockings power supply systems. Based on current issues, nine research questions are defined. First, the basics as well as the present state of the art in research and technology in the field of power supply are examined. This is followed by an analysis of the historical development of interlocking power supply systems based on a substantial literature research. Subsequently, the current and future key developments in this field are investigated. The main part of the work focuses on power supply systems of relay interlockings. The systems currently used are analysed regarding technology, aging and present condition as well as incidents. For that purpose comprehensive statistical evaluations are conducted. After that, a universal concept for replacement of old power supplies by state-of-the-art technology in existing interlocking systems is presented. By studying decision-making-criteria, the appropriate application of different renewal variants is determined. In a life-cycle-costing (LCC) and follow-up cost effective analysis (WKR) the different variants are evaluated and compared with each other.

In a regional railway signalling system, object controllers are the devices responsible for controlling Track Side Equipment and act as interfaces for TSE with the interlocking computer and the Traffic control system. However, associated cabling (signal and power cabling) and civil works pose a major capital investment and it is a source of significant Capital and Operational expenses, particularly in rural areas, where accessibility andconnectivity to power grid and to the interlocking are a problem. Furthermore, cables/signalling equipment are exposed to sabotage and theft in such areas. This can increase the total Life Cycle Cost even further. The Shift2Rail research programme, which was initiated by the European Union and railway stakeholders, tries to address this issue, and revamp the Object Controller concept through the project “TD2.10 Smart radio connectedwayside object controller”, where the aim is to develop a Smart Wayside Object Controller (SWOC). A SWOC is capable of wireless communication between central interlocking and TSE as well as decentralization of interlocking logic. These innovations can reduce the cabling required, increase the availability of diagnostic data, thus reducing maintenance and operational costs and can lead to power saving by utilizing local power sources. The most important impact of the SWOC is a significant reduction of CAPEX, OPEX and of total LCC for an installation utilizing SWOCs, instead of typical OCS.  This work focuses on estimating the LCC of a SWOC system and to compare it with a conventional OCS by developing an LCC model that covers both cases, as well as to use this model to examine when it is more profitable to implement a SWOC, instead of an OCS system. This is done by utilizing LCC analysis and combining a variety of methods in a parametric study. To that extend, a thorough analysis of a modern regional railway signallingsystem, as well as the basis for LCCA are being discussed. At the same time, both OC and SWOC systems are being described and factors affecting their cost discussed.  The methodology is comprised of the LCC modelling part as well as the collection of methods and techniques used to calculate the LCC of OC/SWOC systems and to estimate the costs of different sub-models and parameters of the process. For the modelling process, the station of Björbo was chosen, which operates under ERTMS-R system, but for the sake of the analysis it is assumed that the typical base system in place is an OCS and together withthe existing track layout and equipment it is used as the basis of the analysis. Finally, the formed LCC model is being used in a parametric study to examine how the LCC is affected by using OC or SWOC as well as how LCC responds to changes in parameters such as number of OC/SWOC, traffic density and local power installation cost for the Björbo station. / I ett regionalt järnvägssignalsystem är utdelar de enheter som ansvarar för att kontrollera spårutrustning och fungerar de som gränsyta för spårutrustning med ställverksdatorn och tågtrafikledning systemet. Dock, tillhörande kablar (signalkablar ock kraftkablar), samt anläggningsinfrastruktur utgör en stor kapitalinvestering och de är en källa till märkbar kapitalkostnad och driftskostnader, särskilt på landsbygdsområden, där tillgänglighet och anslutning till elnätet och ställverket är problematisk. Dessutom, kablar och signalutrustning utsätts för stöld och sabotage i sådana områden. Detta kan öka den totala livscykelkostnaden ytterligare. Shift2rail forskningsprogram, som genomförs av EU och järnvägsintressenter, försöker att ta itu med problemet och modernisera utdelar konceptet genom projektet “TD2.10 Smart Radio Connected Wayside Object Controller”, där målet är att utveckla en Smart Spårutrustning Utdelar, så kallade SWOC. En SWOC har kapacitet för trådlös kommunikation mellan central ställverket och spårutrustning, samt decentralisering av satällverkslogiken. Dessa innovationer kan minska nödvändig kabeldragning, öka tillgängligheten av diagnostiska data, vilket minskar underhålls- och driftskostnader och kan leda till energibesparing genom att använda lokala kraftkällor. Den viktigaste effekten av SWOC är en betydande minskning av kapitalkostnader, driftskostnader och totala livscykelkostnaden för en installation som använder SWOC istället för typiska utdelningsystemet. Detta examensarbete fokuserar på att uppskatta LCC för ett SWOC-system och jämföra det med en konventionell utdelingsystem genom att utveckla en LCC-modell som täcker båda fallen, samt att använda denna modell för att undersöka när det är mer lönsamt att implementera en SWOC istället av ett typiskt utdelingsystem. Detta görs genom att använda LCC-analys och kombinera en mängd olika metoder i en parametrisk studie. För att göradetta genomförs en grundlig analys av ett modernt regionalt järnvägssignalsystem, samt grunden för livscykelanalys. Samtidigt beskrivs både ett typiskt utdelingssystem - och SWOC-system samt faktorer som påverkar deras kostnad deskuteras. Metoden består av LCC-modelleringsdelen samt insamling av metoder och tekniker som används för att beräkna LCC för OC / SWOC-system och för att uppskatta kostnaderna för olika delmodeller och parametrar för processen. För modelleringsprocessen valdes stationen i Björbo, som arbetar under ERTMS-R-systemet, men för analysens skull antas att det typiska bassystemet på plats är en typisk OCS och tillsammans med befintlig planritning ochkabelplan är används som grund för analys. Slutligen används den bildade LCC-modellen i en parametrisk studie för att undersöka hur LCC påverkas genom att använda OC eller SWOC samt hur LCC reagerar på förändringar i parametrar såsom antal OC / SWOC, trafiktäthet och lokala kraftinstallationskostnader för Björbo-stationen.

The aim of this thesis is to undertake simplified design and assessment of cofferdam under vertical surcharge in the form of virtual project. Cofferdam constructed on the sea shore must be able to withstand all loads to enable construction of cut and cover tunnel. As a part of the design it is required to assess ground conditions and it is necessary to review feasibility of the structure on the sea. The construction will be described in construction phases and graphically demonstrated in construction sequence drawing. Because the structure is designed for life time of five years, temperature load on struts is studied in the thesis and further considered in structural analysis. Furthermore, it is required to compare analytical models from GEO5 and PLAXIS. Horizontal frame is analysed separately in Scia Engineer. Structural members – cofferdam wall, waler beam and strut are checked in this thesis. For the design of the cofferdam wall second order theory is considered. All mentioned requirements were accomplished with help of corresponding Eurocodes, books and technical advice. Results of this work are feasible and it was possible to design all members to enable construction of the cut and cover tunnel. The phasing was designed such that deformation of the cofferdam is minimalized and use of machinery is limited to machines on temporary platforms. Comparison of two different analytical models showed that different soil modelling has great effect on internal forces, even though the shape of the bending curve is very similar, values obtained from PLAXIS software are much higher. Assessment of the structural members is done according to Eurocode 3, and horizontal frame is checked also against disproportionate collapse.

Ce travail de thèse s'inscrit dans le contexte du développement de la robotique dans la construction. On s’intéresse ici à la construction robotisée de structures maçonnées complexes en ayant recours à de la vision artificielle. La construction sans cintre étant un enjeu important en ce qui concerne la productivité sur un chantier et la quantité de déchets produits, nous explorons, à cet effet, les possibilités qu'offre la rigidité en flexion inhérente aux maçonneries topologiquement autobloquantes. La génération de ces dernières, classique dans le cas plan, est généralisée ici à la conception de structures courbes, à partir de maillages de quadrangles plans et de manière paramétrique, grâce aux logiciels Rhinoceros 3D / Grasshopper. Pour cela, nous proposons un ensemble d'inégalités à respecter afin que la structure obtenue soit effectivement topologiquement autobloquante. Ces inégalités permettent, par ailleurs, d'introduire un résultat nouveau ; à savoir qu'il est possible d'avoir un assemblage de blocs dans lequel chacun des blocs est topologiquement bloqué en translation, mais un sous-ensemble — constitué de plusieurs de ces blocs — ne l'est pas. Un prototype de maçonnerie à topologie autobloquante est finalement conçu. Sa conception repose sur une découpe des joints d'inclinaison variable qui permet de le construire sans cintre. En parallèle, nous abordons des aspects de vision artificielle robuste pour un environnement chantier, environnement complexe dans lequel les capteurs peuvent subir des chocs, être salis ou déplacés accidentellement. Le problème est d'estimer la position relative d'un bloc de maçonnerie par rapport à un bras robot, à partir de simples caméras 2D ne nécessitant pas d'étape de calibration. Notre approche repose sur l'utilisation de réseaux de neurones convolutifs de classification, entraînés à partir de centaines de milliers d'images synthétiques de l’ensemble bras robot + bloc, présentant des variations aléatoires en terme de dimensions et positions du bloc, textures, éclairage, etc, et ce afin que le robot puisse apprendre à repérer le bloc sans trop de biais d’environnement. La génération de ces images est réalisée grâce à Unreal Engine 4. Cette méthode permet la localisation du bloc par rapport au robot avec une précision millimétrique, sans utiliser une seule image réelle pour la phase d'apprentissage ; ce qui constitue un avantage certain puisque l'acquisition de données représentatives pour l'apprentissage est un processus long et fastidieux. Nous avons également construit une base de données riche, constituée d’environ 12000 images réelles contenant un robot et un bloc précisément localisés, permettant d’évaluer quantitativement notre approche et de la rendre comparable aux approches alternatives. Un démonstrateur réel intégrant un bras ABB IRB 120, des blocs parallélépipédiques et trois webcams a été mis en place pour démontrer la faisabilité de la méthode / The context of this thesis work is the development of robotics in the construction industry. We explore the robotic construction of complex masonry structures with the help of computer vision. Construction without the use of formwork is an important issue in relation to both productivity on a construction site and the amount of waste generated. To this end, we study topological interlocking masonries and the possibilities they present. The design of this kind of masonry is standard for planar structures. We generalize it to the design of curved structures in a parametrical way, using PQ meshes and the softwares Rhinoceros 3D and Grasshopper. To achieve this, we introduce a set of inequalities to respect in order to have a topological interlocked structure. These inequalities allow us to present a new result. Namely, it is possible to have an assembly of blocks in which each block is interlocked in translation, while having a subset — composed of several of these blocks — that is not interlocked. We also present a prototype of topological interlocking masonry. Its design is based on variable inclination joints, allowing construction without formwork. In parallel, we are studying robust computer vision for unstructured environments like construction sites, in which sensors are vulnerable to dust or could be accidentally jostled. The goal is to estimate the relative pose (position + orientation) of a masonry block with respect to a robot, using only cheap cameras without the need for calibration. Our approach relies on a classification Convolutional Neural Network trained using hundreds of thousands of synthetically rendered scenes with a robot and a block, and randomized parameters such as block dimensions and poses, light, textures, etc, so that the robot can learn to locate the block without being influenced by the environment. The generation of these images is performed with Unreal Engine 4. This method allows us to estimate a block pose very accurately, with only millimetric errors, without using a single real image for training. This is a strong advantage since acquiring representative training data is a long and expensive process. We also built a new rich dataset of real robot images (about 12,000 images) with accurately localized blocks so that we can evaluate our approach and compare it to alternative approaches. A real demonstrator, including a ABB IRB 120 robot, cuboid blocks and three webcams was set up to prove the feasibility of the method

Die Eisenbahnsicherungstechnik ist eines der wenigen technischen Fachgebiete, die bis heute überwiegend national geprägt sind. Ausgangspunkt der Dissertation sind vergleichende Betrachtungen zur Bahnsicherungstechnik auf internationaler Ebene. Die Dissertation stellt Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede in den Technologien heraus und führt diese auf gemeinsame Anforderungen zurück. / Railway signalling is one of the few technical fields which are still considered mainly on a national level. The basis for these doctoral thesis is an extensive comparison of railway signalling on an international level. The doctoral thesis point out main commons and differences of signalling and interlocking worldwide, and bases them on common requirements.

Developing software without considering the potential changes it mighthave to undergo in the future can be a costly mistake. This is becauseits maintenance costs can become very expensive as they can consumeover 90% of the total life-cycle costs. Incorporating maintainability insoftware has for this reason become highly attractive since it can significantlyreduce the maintenance costs and therefore save companies andsoftware developers a fortune. This thesis presents a software tool thathas been developed to aid Bombardier in the verification of computerbasedinterlocking (CBI) systems. The tool automatically generates testcases which represent the different tests that verify the interlocking system.The paper is divided into two parts. The first part focuses on themaintainability of the tool while the second part investigates whetherthe tool can speed up the testing process of CBI-systems at Bombardier.The results show that the tool is highly maintainable and that tests onCBI-systems can be performed significantly faster with it. / Att utveckla mjukvara utan hänsyn till de eventuella förändringar somden måste genomgå i framtiden kan bli ett kostsamt misstag. Dettaberor på att dess underhållskostnader kan bli mycket dyra eftersom dekan konsumera över 90% av de totala kostnaderna. Det har därför blivitväldigt attraktivt att lägga fokus på underhållbarhet när man utvecklarmjukvara eftersom det kan avsevärt minska underhållskostnadernaoch därmed spara mjukvaruutvecklare och företag en förmögenhet. Idenna uppsats presenteras ett verktyg som har utvecklats för att hjälpaBombardier med verifiering av datorställverk. Verktyget automatisktgenererar testfall som representerar de olika testen som verifierar ställverket.Uppsatsen är uppdelad i två delar. Den första delen fokuserarpå verktygets underhållbarhet medan den andra delen undersöker omverktyget kan påskynda testprocessen för datorställverk på Bombardier.Resultaten visar att verktyget är väldigt underhållbart och att

Background: Open reduction and internal fixation with a plate is deemed to represent the gold standard of surgical treatment for displaced intra-articular calcaneal fractures. Standard plate fixation is usually placed through an extended lateral approach with high risk for wound complications. Minimally invasive techniques might avoid wound complications but provide limited construct stability. Therefore, 2 different types of locking nails were developed to allow for minimally invasive technique with sufficient stability. The aim of this study was to quantify primary stability of minimally invasive calcaneal interlocking nail systems in comparison to a variable-angle interlocking plate. Material and Methods: After quantitative CT analysis, a standardized Sanders type IIB fracture model was created in 21 fresh-frozen cadavers. For osteosynthesis, 2 different interlocking nail systems (C-Nail; Medin, Nov. Město n. Moravě, Czech Republic; Calcanail; FH Orthopedics SAS; Heimsbrunn, France) as well as a polyaxial interlocking plate (Rimbus; Intercus GmbH; Rudolstadt, Germany) were used. Biomechanical testing consisted of a dynamic load sequence (preload 20 N, 1000 N up to 2500 N, stepwise increase of 100 N every 100 cycles, 0.5 mm/s) and a load to failure sequence (max. load 5000 N, 0.5 mm/s). Interfragmentary movement was detected via a 3-D optical measurement system. Boehler angle was measured after osteosynthesis and after failure occurred. Results: No significant difference regarding load to failure, stiffness, Boehler angle, or interfragmentary motion was found between the different fixation systems. A ignificant difference was found with the dynamic failure testing sequence where 87.5% of the Calcanail implants failed in contrast to 14% of the C-Nail group (P < .01) and 66% of the Rimbus plate. The highest load to failure was observed for the C-Nail. Boehler angle showed physiologic range with all implants before and after the biomechanical tests. Conclusion: Both minimally invasive interlocking nail systems displayed a high primary stability that was not inferior to an interlocking plate. Clinical relevance: Based on our results, both interlocking nails appear to represent a viable option for treating displaced intra-articular calcaneal fractures.

Les matériaux discrets entrecroisés (DIM) rigides sont une classe de matériaux qui se distinguent par la manière unique par laquelle ils se déforment: les DIMs sont composés d’éléments (connectés par entrecroisements) qui peuvent se déplacer librement à l’intérieur d’une amplitude définie par les contacts avec leurs éléments voisins. Ceci donne une réponse biphasique aux déformations unique à ces structures où soit aucune résistance n’est fournie à une déformation, soit un arrêt complet à la déformation se présente. Il n’est pas clair comment l’ensemble de paramètres discrets et continus décrivant un DIM influence ce comportement biphasique. De plus, nous ne possédons pas les outils pour le charactériser correctement. Dans le but d’élucider ce comportement, nous présentons une méthode qui s’inspire de techniques d’homogénisation qui peut détecter les contacts physiques entre éléments composés de tores. En définissant une énergie adéquate, nous pouvons minimiser les intersections entre éléments tout en déformant le DIM d’une façon arbitraire en utilisant des techniques d’optimisation standardes. Nous explorons les déformations auxquelles des arrangements planaires de DIMs peuvent être assujettis et investiguons comment le couplage de contraintes dans deux directions orthogonales influence ces déformations. Nos résultats permettent de mieux comprendre comment différents paramètres décrivant un DIM influence ces déformations. / Rigid discrete interlocking materials (DIMs) are a class of materials that distinguish themselves by the unique way in which they deform: in DIMs, elements (connected through interlocking) can move freely within a range defined through contacts with neighbouring elements. This results in a biphasic deformation behaviour unique to these structures where no resistance is provided to deformation or a hard stop to deformation is met. It is yet unclear how the set of discrete and continuous parameters describing a DIM influences this biphasic behaviour. Likewise, we lack tools to properly characterize it. To that effect, we present a method which takes inspiration from homogenization and handles contacts by leveraging the definition of implicit surfaces, specifically tori, making up our elements. By defining an adequate energy function, we can minimize intersection between elements while deforming the DIM in an arbitrary way using standard optimization approaches. We explore the deformations that planar sheets of DIM can be subjected to and investigate how the coupling of constraints in two orthogonal directions affects these deformations. Our results give insights on how the tuning of various parameters describing the DIM affects these deformations.

This thesis is a collection of three essays in causal evaluation. The first chapter investigates the effects of formal ties between firms and banks on the amount of credit received. I focus on the micro-effects of ties (bank-firm level) and how they reverberate at the macro level. Results are consistent with the literature considering links as a source of favoritism. However, efficient firms are more likely to be connected to banks, thus benefiting more often than less efficient firms from connections. The comparison of Portugal’s GDP in 2017 with that produced under a hypothetical scenario where every tie was severed shows that severing links results in virtually no changes in GDP. I interpret the result as evidence that the different likelihood of being connected experienced by efficient and not efficient firms counterbalances the misallocating potential of connections.The second chapter introduces a novel Stata implementation of Egger and von Ehrlich’s (2013) econometric framework for the estimation of treatment effect when the treatment is continuous and multidimensional. After the illustration of the package, I present a simple simulation to show the capability of the method to overcome bias.The third chapter consists of an evaluation of European regional policy. It analyzes how different mixes of investments in infrastructure and productive investments affect regions’ growth rate. The main results are that allocations in infrastructure foster growth only when coupled with expenditures in productive investments. Moreover, the highest growth is obtained when investments have high intensity in both dimensions. By generating two hypothetical scenarios, I investigate how the allocation of funds can be improved. The results show that regions could allocate more efficiently. However, the actual transfer intensity is not enough to choose the mix that would globally maximize growth. The findings are consistent with Becker et al. (2012) since enforcing common support restricts the analysis to regions with low transfer intensity.

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