Mummies have been considered as 'biologic museums' as they display vital evidence and clues about the life and death of the ancient Egyptian population who lived thousands of years ago. They also hold the secrets of the evolution of disease. The Third Intermediate Period mummies represent the mummification technique at its best. The main aim of this research is to produce a scientific study of the Third Intermediate Period mummies in the British Museum. It attempts to answer some important questions and considers to what extent a detailed radiographic investigation of a group of mummies can provide evidence about disease processes, diet, mummification techniques, funerary and medical practices within that period. Non-invasive techniques were used during this study to investigate a group of seven mummies from the collection of the British Museum. The mummies are encased in cartonnage cases except one mummy which is inside a wooden coffin. The radiological methods (i.e. X-ray radiography and CT scanning) provided new information regarding the manufacturing of cartonnage cases during that period. The detailed radiographs showed aspects of the mummification techniques that were not reported during pervious investigations. A historical account of the Third Intermediate Period was given in chapter one while chapter two provides information regarding the mummification techniques used during this historical period. Chapter three gives information on previous radiological studies and chapter four gives detailed description and photographs of the selected mummies, the subjects of this investigation. Chapter five contains a full description of the methods used during this study and the results and discussions were presented in chapter six. A catalogue with detailed information is attached as an appendix to the thesis to present the physical anthropological data and radiological finds with regards to each mummy from this selected group.

AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF Sarah K. Muno for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Anthropology, presented on September 26, 2018 at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. TITLE: LABOR AND SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ANCIENT PERU: A BIOARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE MAJOR PROFESSOR: Dr. Izumi Shimada This dissertation presents a bioarchaeological study of labor and social identity in coastal Peru during the Late Intermediate Period (900 – 1470 CE), using data from contemporaneous Middle Sicán (Sicán Precinct and El Brujo, north coast) and Ychsma (Pachacamac, central coast) mortuary contexts. I combine information about funerary treatment with skeletal evidence of trauma, degenerative joint disease, and muscle attachment site morphology (enthesial changes or EC) to test whether inferred commoners were “over-worked” relative to their elite counterparts, as often assumed based on western, Marxist notions of social class. Much of what has been inferred about socio-economic organization in coastal Peru during the Late Intermediate Period is modeled after the parcialidades described in early Spanish chronicles and colonial documents. In this system, occupation, social status, and ethnicity were intimately intertwined, with common fishers and farmers serving as the “productive base” for privileged members of society, including full-time artisans and their elite patrons. Archaeological evidence of elite sponsored large-scale labor projects, including specialized craft production, in pre-Hispanic coastal Peru accords well with the parcialidad model, but assumptions about the social identities of laborers often go untested. Human skeletal data offer a unique opportunity to redress this situation, providing information about life experience – including patterns of physical activity – that are not typically accessible with other kinds of archaeological data. Bioarchaeological studies of physical activity hold great promise for testing hypotheses about social identity and life experience in ancient societies, but they are not without some limitation. People who engage in strenuous physical activity tend to have more degenerative joint disease and enthesial changes than those who do not, but the precise mechanisms behind this are not well understood. Age and body size are known to influence these skeletal markers, although some researchers have suggested certain entheses may be less sensitive to size and thus more informative about activity, than others. In my sample, there were no discernible differences in skeletal trauma, degenerative joint disease, or ECs between elites and non-elites, or between males and females, when statistically controlling for the influence of age and/or size. These results do not support the hypotheses that non-elites were over-burdened by arduous labor tasks or that exemption from such tasks was part of the social privileges afforded to elites. Therefore, conventional perspectives that tend to conflate elite and non-elite identities with oppressor/oppressed or manager/laborer roles appear to have little relevance for characterizing the social dynamics of labor organization in Middle Sicán and Ychsma socities. My study supports, at least in part, previous research that argues some entheses are less prone to the influence of size than others, and may therefore be more reliable indicators of activity. In this sample, strong statistical correlations between EC scores, age, and size as determined from three humeral measurements were found for fibrous entheses, but humeral size did not correlate to scores for the fibrocartilaginous type. However, current uncertainties about the precise etiology of enthesial changes makes it difficult to interpret variation in EC scores with a high degree of certainty, and thus my study also highlights some of the drawbacks associated with using EC scores to infer patterns of activity. Experimental research to better understand how the timing, duration, and severity of muscle stress and strain influence enthesial development and technological innovations to quantify enthesial size and shape will be key to resolving these issues in the future.

No description available.

Puerto Chancay Archaeological Rescue Project: Preliminary ResultsThis note presents the preliminary results of the Archaeological Rescue Project Puerto Chancay. (November 1993 to November 1994). The excavations revealed a long occupation sequence lasting from the Early Intermediate to the Late Intermediate Periods. / En el presente artículo se presentan los resultados preliminares del Proyecto de Rescate Arqueológico Puerto Chancay realizado entre noviembre de 1993 y noviembre de 1994. En estas se evidencia una larga ocupación prehispánica de la zona que va desde el Periodo Intermedio Temprano hasta el Intermedio Tardío.

Poucos estudos têm se dedicado a explorar de forma mais sistemática o processo que levou ao fim do Reino Antigo (2686 a 2160 a.C.) e ao advento do Primeiro Período Intermediário (2160-2055 a.C.) no Antigo Egito. A relativa escassez de fontes sempre foi um dos argumentos usados para rotular esse momento da história egípcia como uma idade das trevas, na qual a civilização do Nilo teria mergulhado em profundo caos decorrente do enfraquecimento da monarquia unificada articulada em torno do faraó e da elite menfita. Nesse entendimento períodos como esse, de retração da capacidade centralizadora do Estado, permanecem alijados da histórica política egípcia e são encarados como meros hiatos dentro de um curso supostamente natural de centralização política. Pretendendo rever essas interpretações, este estudo se debruça sobre a organização da administração estatal egípcia no período que cobre especialmente da Vª dinastia ao Primeiro Período Intermediário. A análise da documentação, que engloba decretos régios e autobiografias inscritas nas tumbas de alguns dos mais destacados funcionários dessa época, demonstra que a corrente percepção acerca do fim do Reino Antigo, na qual as reformas administrativas empreendidas entre a Vª e VIª dinastias teriam provocado excesso de poder das elites locais, levando-as a se autonomizar e a concorrer com o próprio Estado, é equivocada. Partindo de um concepção materialista a respeito do que se entende por Estado foi possível notar que o poder das elites provinciais, no Reino Antigo, articulava-se em torno de pelo menos três eixos principais: através do exercício de funções burocráticas na administração estatal; como responsáveis por instalações régias nas províncias, a exemplo do Hwt; e por intermédio da administração e sacerdócio tanto em templos de divindades locais quanto nas chamadas capelas do ka, destinadas ao culto dos monarcas egípcios. A conclusão é a de que a autonomia de certos grupos provinciais frente ao poder menfita se dá somente após o enfraquecimento deste último, não estabelecendo com ele uma relação causal. Tal autonomia não se configura, igualmente, como um processo de oposição ao Estado, uma vez que elites locais e Estado sei inseriam na lógica estatal por meio de laços de solidariedade e reciprocidade essenciais ao equilíbrio de ambos. Ao ofertar nova luz ao estudo da administração egípcia busca-se repensar as condições que levaram ao declínio do Reino Antigo, assim como reavaliar o lugar do Primeiro Período Intermediário na história egípcia através de uma perspectiva integradora, inserindo-o na dinâmica das relações de poder que marcaram a trajetória dessa sociedade como um momento fundamental no qual administração estatal, longe de entrar em colapso, reorganizase e se rearticula. / Only a few studies have systematically explored the process that led to the ending of the Old Kingdom (2686-2160 B.C) and the arrival of the First Intermediate Period (2160-2055 B.C) in Ancient Egypt. The relative lack of sources has always been an argument to label this moment of the Egyptian history has a period of dark ages, when the Nile civilization supposedly dived into deep chaos due to the weakening of the unified monarchy that jointed around the pharaoh and the Memphite elite. To this understanding, periods like that one, in which the States centralizing capacity retracted, remain excluded from the Egyptian political history and are faced as mere hiatus in a supposedly natural course of political centralization. Aiming to revise such interpretations, the present study discusses the organization of the Egyptian State administration from the 5th dynasty to the First Intermediate Period. The analysis of documents like royal decrees and autobiographies written in the tombs of some of the more distinguished officers of the period, points out the misconception of the current comprehension about the ending of the Old Kingdom. From our point of view, the administrative reforms made between the 5th and the 6th dynasties did not necessarily provoke an excess of power among the local elites, and therefore did not necessarily lead them to become autonomous and then concur with the State. By having in mind a materialistic conception of State, we could notice that the provincial elites power during the Old Kingdom jointed around at least three main perspectives: the exercise of bureaucratic functions in the State administration; the responsibility for royal installations in the provinces, like the hwt for example; and the administration and priesthood in local divinities temples and ka chapels, destined to the cult of the Egyptian monarchs. We have concluded that certain provincial groups started to become autonomous and to face the Memphite power only after this ones hegemony started to weaken; therefore, there is no causal relation. In the same way, such autonomy did not mean an opposition to the State, since the local elites and the State were bounded by solidarity and reciprocity laces which were essential to the balance of both. By offering a new perspective to the study of the Egyptian administration, we aim to rethink the conditions that led to the fall of the Old Kingdom and reevaluate the place of the First Intermediate Period in Egyptian history. We propose an integrating perspective that puts this period into the dynamics of power relations that marked the trajectory of that society as a fundamental moment in which the State administration, far from collapsing, reorganized and rearticulated itself.

Poucos estudos têm se dedicado a explorar de forma mais sistemática o processo que levou ao fim do Reino Antigo (2686 a 2160 a.C.) e ao advento do Primeiro Período Intermediário (2160-2055 a.C.) no Antigo Egito. A relativa escassez de fontes sempre foi um dos argumentos usados para rotular esse momento da história egípcia como uma idade das trevas, na qual a civilização do Nilo teria mergulhado em profundo caos decorrente do enfraquecimento da monarquia unificada articulada em torno do faraó e da elite menfita. Nesse entendimento períodos como esse, de retração da capacidade centralizadora do Estado, permanecem alijados da histórica política egípcia e são encarados como meros hiatos dentro de um curso supostamente natural de centralização política. Pretendendo rever essas interpretações, este estudo se debruça sobre a organização da administração estatal egípcia no período que cobre especialmente da Vª dinastia ao Primeiro Período Intermediário. A análise da documentação, que engloba decretos régios e autobiografias inscritas nas tumbas de alguns dos mais destacados funcionários dessa época, demonstra que a corrente percepção acerca do fim do Reino Antigo, na qual as reformas administrativas empreendidas entre a Vª e VIª dinastias teriam provocado excesso de poder das elites locais, levando-as a se autonomizar e a concorrer com o próprio Estado, é equivocada. Partindo de um concepção materialista a respeito do que se entende por Estado foi possível notar que o poder das elites provinciais, no Reino Antigo, articulava-se em torno de pelo menos três eixos principais: através do exercício de funções burocráticas na administração estatal; como responsáveis por instalações régias nas províncias, a exemplo do Hwt; e por intermédio da administração e sacerdócio tanto em templos de divindades locais quanto nas chamadas capelas do ka, destinadas ao culto dos monarcas egípcios. A conclusão é a de que a autonomia de certos grupos provinciais frente ao poder menfita se dá somente após o enfraquecimento deste último, não estabelecendo com ele uma relação causal. Tal autonomia não se configura, igualmente, como um processo de oposição ao Estado, uma vez que elites locais e Estado sei inseriam na lógica estatal por meio de laços de solidariedade e reciprocidade essenciais ao equilíbrio de ambos. Ao ofertar nova luz ao estudo da administração egípcia busca-se repensar as condições que levaram ao declínio do Reino Antigo, assim como reavaliar o lugar do Primeiro Período Intermediário na história egípcia através de uma perspectiva integradora, inserindo-o na dinâmica das relações de poder que marcaram a trajetória dessa sociedade como um momento fundamental no qual administração estatal, longe de entrar em colapso, reorganizase e se rearticula. / Only a few studies have systematically explored the process that led to the ending of the Old Kingdom (2686-2160 B.C) and the arrival of the First Intermediate Period (2160-2055 B.C) in Ancient Egypt. The relative lack of sources has always been an argument to label this moment of the Egyptian history has a period of dark ages, when the Nile civilization supposedly dived into deep chaos due to the weakening of the unified monarchy that jointed around the pharaoh and the Memphite elite. To this understanding, periods like that one, in which the States centralizing capacity retracted, remain excluded from the Egyptian political history and are faced as mere hiatus in a supposedly natural course of political centralization. Aiming to revise such interpretations, the present study discusses the organization of the Egyptian State administration from the 5th dynasty to the First Intermediate Period. The analysis of documents like royal decrees and autobiographies written in the tombs of some of the more distinguished officers of the period, points out the misconception of the current comprehension about the ending of the Old Kingdom. From our point of view, the administrative reforms made between the 5th and the 6th dynasties did not necessarily provoke an excess of power among the local elites, and therefore did not necessarily lead them to become autonomous and then concur with the State. By having in mind a materialistic conception of State, we could notice that the provincial elites power during the Old Kingdom jointed around at least three main perspectives: the exercise of bureaucratic functions in the State administration; the responsibility for royal installations in the provinces, like the hwt for example; and the administration and priesthood in local divinities temples and ka chapels, destined to the cult of the Egyptian monarchs. We have concluded that certain provincial groups started to become autonomous and to face the Memphite power only after this ones hegemony started to weaken; therefore, there is no causal relation. In the same way, such autonomy did not mean an opposition to the State, since the local elites and the State were bounded by solidarity and reciprocity laces which were essential to the balance of both. By offering a new perspective to the study of the Egyptian administration, we aim to rethink the conditions that led to the fall of the Old Kingdom and reevaluate the place of the First Intermediate Period in Egyptian history. We propose an integrating perspective that puts this period into the dynamics of power relations that marked the trajectory of that society as a fundamental moment in which the State administration, far from collapsing, reorganized and rearticulated itself.

Stone plays an inextricable role in the lives of Andean peoples and the monumental stoneworks of pre-Hispanic cultures stand in memorial to the experiences and beliefs of those who created them. Stone is often selected as a medium for symbolic works due to its durability and perceived permanence, but in the Andes, its meaning expands beyond its physical properties. Stone was an extension of the animate landscape that both sheltered and endangered its inhabitants. Stories were attached to stones, whether natural or modified, to embed knowledge of the landscape and of history in the memory of communities. Centuries later, archaeologists utilize modified stones and constructed monuments as a window to understand long past societies. As our own technological abilities expand, we are able to garner even deeper understandings of the way stones were used and the meanings they may have once held. High in the Peruvian Andes, in a small city renown for its natural beauty and ecological adventures, there is a modest museum, where hundreds of once powerful stone ancestors are visited by school groups and tourists, receiving words of wonder in place of the offerings of coca, chicha, and music once granted to them by their human children and grandchildren known today as the Recuay people. These carved figures give clues to their meaning through their crouched mummified positions and their accoutrements of power, warfare, and fertility. But much of their histories have been lost, as looting, religious persecution, and local curation have moved almost all of these ancestors from their resting places, erasing clues about their roles and meaning in the society that made them. Utilizing a Holistic Approach to craft production (Shimada and Craig 2013; Shimada and Merkel 1987; Shimada and Wagner 2007), this research seeks to recontextualize these powerful Recuay ancestors that once populated the Huaraz region of highland Ancash (ca. 100-700 CE) through an investigation of their making. Each choice and action in the process of production reveals important information about broader technological systems, social, political, and economic relationships, and the cosmologies and belief systems of the makers. Incorporating multiple lines of evidence from geochemical and technological analysis, as well and surveys of archaeological sites, interviews with modern stone sculptors, and experimental testing of manufacturing techniques, this research provides a reconstruction of the entire production sequence for Recuay stone ancestors, from the selection, procurement, and dispersal of raw materials to the techniques, tools, and settings employed in manufacturing. This research offers an example of the efficacy of the Holistic Approach to gain sociocultural insights from material records of the process of production through direct evidence of manufacturing and to overcome limitations regarding artifact provenience. Additionally, the robust geochemical analysis outlined here provides a replicable approach to semi-quantitative sourcing studies through non-destructive portable X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscopy, with an analytical approach that is as accessible as equipment operation. As a rare case study in pre-Inkaic stone quarrying and carving, this research showcases the technological and symbolic variability within a centuries long belief system that recognized the animate landscape and treated extracted materials as an extension of those forces. Over the course of this 600 year long carving tradition, Recuay artisans altered the forms and iconographic details of these important sculptures, but the production techniques, surface treatments, and raw materials remained remarkably consistent. Only four geologic sources provided raw materials for 96% of analyzed sculptures in this regional assemblage across three different volcanic stone types, including two long-hypothesized quarries, Pongor and Cerro Walun. Over 97% of sculptures across all volcanic, sedimentary, and plutonic stone types shared a specially crafted surface treatment that differed from other Recuay stoneworks and from stone sculptures of preceding cultures in the region. Investigations at the confirmed quarry site of Cerro Walun reveal contextualized insights about the infrastructure of stone quarrying and carving and its close association with tombs and venerated, animate landscapes. Combined with understandings of communal ancestor veneration and intercommunity socio-political negotiations among the Recuay, we see that these stone figures and the process of creating them played an active role in the expression and maintenance of relationships and knowledge between communities and across generations.

During 2014, research undertaken at the sites of Cerro San Bernardo (ACO3; 2,000 m above sea level) and Challaca (CH1; 2,015 m above sea level) revealed the first documented Nasca sites (260 B.C – A.D. 640) in the yunga ecozone of the upper drainage of the Ica River. Both sites also demonstrated evidence of an even earlier, Early Horizon occupation (840 – 260 B.C.). These two sites are located on small, mainly granite, knolls situated on the Northern and Southern banks of the upper drainage of the Ica River. From these sites, it is possible to oversee an extensive area of cultivation that extends from the mountains to the East down to the Western boundary of the Challaca-Tiraxi Canyon. An area, which these sites could well have controlled. Geographically, the canyon divides the Ica Highlands from the coastal area, giving this juncture geopolitical importance. It is possible that the strategic location of this Nasca enclave in the Ica Highlands was aimed at controlling access between coastal polities and highland sectors, while exploiting this zones rich, high-altitude resources. Probably, occupation of this strategic sector commenced during the Early Horizon (840 – 260 B.C.), pointing to a long presence by coastal groups in the highlands. The aim of this article then, is to tease-out patterns of control, interaction, and the type of frontier in existence between the Nasca and coeval, neighboring, highland cultural groups, thereby providing new evidence concerning Nasca presence in the upper drainage of the Ica River. / Las investigaciones iniciadas en el año 2014 en el Cerro San Bernardo (ACO3; 2000 metros sobre el nivel del mar) y Challaca (CH1; 2015 metros sobre el nivel del mar) nos han permitido hallar los primeros sitios Nasca (260 a.C a 640 d.C.) en la ecozona yunga de la cuenca alta del río Ica. Los dos sitios también registran la posibilidad de una ocupación aún más temprana que se remonta al Horizonte Temprano (840 a 260 a.C.). Estos dos sitios se ubican sobre cerros pequeños, que están conformados principalmente por granito, y que se localizan al norte y sur sobre los márgenes de la cuenca alta del río Ica. Desde estos sitios, se puede divisar una extensa área de cultivo que se extiende desde los cerros al este, hasta el oeste y el límite del cañón de Challaca-Tiraxi, la cual podría estar bajo su control. Geográficamente, el cañón divide la sierra de Ica del área costera, a partir de lo cual le brinda una ubicación geopolítica importante. Es posible que la localización estratégica de este enclave Nasca en la sierra de Ica haya sido para controlar el acceso desde las sociedades costeras a los sectores de la sierra, mientras se nutría de los recursos de esta rica zona alta. Probablemente, la ocupación de este punto estratégico se inició durante el Horizonte Temprano (840 a 260 a.C.), lo cual significaría una presencia larga por parte de los grupos costeños en la sierra. Ante este contexto, el objetivo del presente trabajo es indagar sobre los patrones de control, interacción y el tipo de frontera entre los Nasca y los grupos culturales serranos, vecinos, sincrónicos, aportando nuevas evidencias sobre la presencia Nasca en la cuenca alta del río Ica.

This work introduces the site of Catalina Huanca and presents the results of research conducted on its Monticulos 6 and 7 between 2006-2008. Archaeological intervention has permitted the identication of the scope of local politicalprocesses that developed there in prehistory. Around 550 AD, Lima society began the planned construction of this extensive public center in the middle Rimac Valley, representing an enormous investment of work and organization. An analysis of the architectural sequence of Monticulo 7 has illustrated that during the course of 150 years, the settlement’s buldings were continually renovated, reproducing original architectural schematics and therefore the same ideological principles that sustained local power. Later, towards 700-750 AD, the site’s buldings were buried and abandoned following a number of human sacrices, above which was recorded a thick strata of silt. After 750 AD, one of the mounds of the settlement (Monticulo 6) was reutilized as a cemetery for a population whose material culture was found to be associated with the Huari phenomenon. / Se presenta una introducción del sitio Catalina Huanca así como los resultados de las investigaciones realizadas en los Montículos 6 y 7 durante los años 2006-2008. Tales intervenciones nos han permitido identicar el desarrollo de procesos políticos locales. Así, alrededor del año 550 d.C., la sociedad Lima inicia la construcción planicada de un extenso centro público en el valle medio del Rímac, el cual implicó una enorme inversión de trabajo y organización. El análisis de la secuencia arquitectónica del Montículo 7 nos indica que durante un trascurso de 150 años, los edicios del asentamiento fueron renovados continuamente, reproduciendo las plantas arquitectónicas originales y por lo tanto los mismos principios que sustentaban la ideología del poder local. Luego, hacia los años 700-750 d.C. los edicios son sepultados y abandonados tras eventos de sacricios humanos, después de lo cual se registran gruesos estratos de limo.A partir del 750 d.C. uno de los montículos del asentamiento (Montículo 6) es reutilizado como cementerio de una población cuya cultura material se encuentra asociada al fenómeno wari.

The Early Intermediate Period (Middle Horizon) at Cochabamba Valleys: A Perspective of the Analysis of Human Settlements and Land UseKnowledge of regional interaction during the Intemediate Period (AD 500-1000) in the South Central Andes (corresponding to the Middle Horizon of the Central Andes) is essential for understanding the territorial expansion of Prehispanic Andean states. This study analyzes settlement and land use patterns in Cochabamba during the transition from the Early Intermediate Period (200 BC-AC 500) to the Middle Horizon. It has been suggested that during this latter period Cochabamba was colonized by the Tiwanaku polity to obtain agricultural resources. Archaeology of the Middle Horizon in Cochabamba is characterized by the presence of Tiwanaku style pottery, but presence of ceramics alone does not document colonization or administration from the Altiplano. In this study I analyze human occupation during the Middle Horizon in two survey areas, examining settlement and land use (agricultural capacity). The absence of changes in land use strategies and only minor variations in settlement patterns during the Middle Horizon do not correspond with changes accompanying territorial expansion by the Tiwanaku polity. I suggest a model of independent local populations to understand the occupation of Cochabamba durign the Middle Horizon. Consequently, this study offers a new example of variation in regional interaction during the Tiwanaku times in the southern Andes. / La interacción regional durante el Periodo Intermedio (500-1000 d.C) en los Andes centro-sur (correspondiente al Horizonte Medio en los Andes Centrales) es esencial para la comprensión de la expansión territorial de estados prehispánicos en los Andes. En esta investigación se han estudiado cambios en los patrones de asentamiento y el uso de tierras en Cochabamba en la transición del Periodo Intermedio Temprano (200-500 d.C.) al Periodo Intermedio. Se ha sugerido que, en este último periodo, Cochabamba es colonizada por la sociedad Tiwanaku para explotar recursos agrícolas. En efecto, el Periodo Intermedio se caracteriza por la presencia de cerámica de estilo Tiwanaku, pero ello no se puede asumir como presencia de poblaciones altiplánicas. En este estudio se analiza cómo se organiza la ocupación humana y el uso de tierras en el Periodo Intermedio usando datos de la capacidad agrícola de las zonas prospectadas. La ausencia de cambios en las estrategias de uso de tierras y variaciones menores en los patrones de asentamiento del Periodo Intermedio no corresponden a una expresión de expansión territorial de Tiwanaku. Se postula el modelo de independencia de las poblaciones locales para entender la ocupación del Periodo Intermedio. Este estudio sugiere así una nueva forma de interacción regional que amplía los conocimientos de las relaciones territoriales de la sociedad Tiwanaku y de sociedades expansionistas de los Andes.