AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF Sarah K. Muno for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Anthropology, presented on September 26, 2018 at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. TITLE: LABOR AND SOCIAL IDENTITY IN ANCIENT PERU: A BIOARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE MAJOR PROFESSOR: Dr. Izumi Shimada This dissertation presents a bioarchaeological study of labor and social identity in coastal Peru during the Late Intermediate Period (900 – 1470 CE), using data from contemporaneous Middle Sicán (Sicán Precinct and El Brujo, north coast) and Ychsma (Pachacamac, central coast) mortuary contexts. I combine information about funerary treatment with skeletal evidence of trauma, degenerative joint disease, and muscle attachment site morphology (enthesial changes or EC) to test whether inferred commoners were “over-worked” relative to their elite counterparts, as often assumed based on western, Marxist notions of social class. Much of what has been inferred about socio-economic organization in coastal Peru during the Late Intermediate Period is modeled after the parcialidades described in early Spanish chronicles and colonial documents. In this system, occupation, social status, and ethnicity were intimately intertwined, with common fishers and farmers serving as the “productive base” for privileged members of society, including full-time artisans and their elite patrons. Archaeological evidence of elite sponsored large-scale labor projects, including specialized craft production, in pre-Hispanic coastal Peru accords well with the parcialidad model, but assumptions about the social identities of laborers often go untested. Human skeletal data offer a unique opportunity to redress this situation, providing information about life experience – including patterns of physical activity – that are not typically accessible with other kinds of archaeological data. Bioarchaeological studies of physical activity hold great promise for testing hypotheses about social identity and life experience in ancient societies, but they are not without some limitation. People who engage in strenuous physical activity tend to have more degenerative joint disease and enthesial changes than those who do not, but the precise mechanisms behind this are not well understood. Age and body size are known to influence these skeletal markers, although some researchers have suggested certain entheses may be less sensitive to size and thus more informative about activity, than others. In my sample, there were no discernible differences in skeletal trauma, degenerative joint disease, or ECs between elites and non-elites, or between males and females, when statistically controlling for the influence of age and/or size. These results do not support the hypotheses that non-elites were over-burdened by arduous labor tasks or that exemption from such tasks was part of the social privileges afforded to elites. Therefore, conventional perspectives that tend to conflate elite and non-elite identities with oppressor/oppressed or manager/laborer roles appear to have little relevance for characterizing the social dynamics of labor organization in Middle Sicán and Ychsma socities. My study supports, at least in part, previous research that argues some entheses are less prone to the influence of size than others, and may therefore be more reliable indicators of activity. In this sample, strong statistical correlations between EC scores, age, and size as determined from three humeral measurements were found for fibrous entheses, but humeral size did not correlate to scores for the fibrocartilaginous type. However, current uncertainties about the precise etiology of enthesial changes makes it difficult to interpret variation in EC scores with a high degree of certainty, and thus my study also highlights some of the drawbacks associated with using EC scores to infer patterns of activity. Experimental research to better understand how the timing, duration, and severity of muscle stress and strain influence enthesial development and technological innovations to quantify enthesial size and shape will be key to resolving these issues in the future.

Panquilma and Cieneguilla in the Archaeological Discussion of the Late Horizon in the Central CoastIn the context of the initial works at the archaeological site of Panquilma, the authors offer new data for the site together with a brief review of previous work in the Cieneguilla area, where the site is located. This review discusses the geography, the settlement pattern and the ethnohistory of this area with some preliminary concluding remarks. / Aprovechando los trabajos arqueológicos iniciales realizados en el sitio de Panquilma, los autores aportan algunos datos nuevos sobre el sitio y analizan los datos ya existentes para el área de Cieneguilla, lugar donde se encuentra este sitio. Esta rápida revisión intenta abarcar la geografía, el patrón de asentamiento y las fuentes etnohistóricas conocidas, así como ensayar algunas conclusiones preliminares.

The "Guayacundo" Ethnos in the Highland of PiuraThe Guayacundo were an atuncuracazgo, or macroethnia, during the Late Intermediate Period and Late Horizon. Their location corresponds to the space occupied by the counties of Ayabaca and Huancabamba, in Piura. Their culture was greatly influenced by peoples from the forest, such as the Paltas, Caluas and Malacatos, located to the north and the northeast. Guayacundo was a chiefdom of sedentary towns, dedicated to agriculture and diverse crafts, organized in a politically structured space with permanent contact with both the coast and the tropical forest. The Guayacundo were conquered by Tupac Yupanqui who, among other things, founded the urban establishment of Caxas, in the lands of Coyayca. The guayacundos became part of the Tahuantinsuyo in capacity of loyal servants of the Inca, who trusted them with positions of responsibility in the service of the state. / Los guayacundo formaron un atuncuracazgo o macroetnia durante el Periodo Intermedio Tardío y el Horizonte Tardío. Su ubicación corresponde al espacio actualmente ocupado por las provincias de Ayabaca y Huancabamba, en el departamento de Piura. Su cultura tuvo una gran influencia selvática, al igual que los paltas, caluas y malacatos, localizados al norte y al noreste. Guayacundo fue un señorío de pueblos sedentarios, dedicados a la agricultura y a diversas artesanías, organizados en un espacio políticamente estructurado y con permanente contacto con costa y selva. Fueron conquistados por Túpac Yupanqui, quien, entre otras cosas, fundó el asentamiento urbano de Caxas, en las tierras de Coyayca. Los guayacundos pasaron a formar parte del Tahuantinsuyo en calidad de leales servidores de los incas, los que les confiaron cargos de responsabilidad a favor del Estado.

The culture history of the valley of Cuzco prior to the rise of the Incas is being revealed by twelve years of fieldwork at the site of Chokepukio. Located in the Lucre Basin at the eastern end of the valley, Chokepukio contains the only surviving monumental architecture of Late Intermediate Period Cuzco. Excavations in a series of large niched structures on the site reveals that they functioned as feasting halls. Quantities of polychrome ceramic serving and feasting vessels and high quality sumptuary goods reveal that elite individuals were involved in the rituals and feasts carried out there. The presence of elaborate water works and human burials in the halls seems to suggest that they functioned as lineage halls for feasting ancestors. The plan of the architecture and overall structure of the site together with radiocarbon dating suggests that a complex polity was centered at Chokepukio for three to four centuries between the fall of the Wari Empire and the rise of the Incas. This polity provided an essential continuity of statecraft and preserved infrastructure. The Incas’ meteoric rise was surely due to their genesis in a more politically complex environment than previously believed. / El proceso de la historia cultural del valle del Cuzco antes del ascenso de los incas está saliendo a la luz gracias a 12 años de trabajo de campo en el sitio de Chokepukio. Ubicado en la cuenca de Lucre, en el extremo este del valle, Chokepukio contiene la única arquitectura monumental superviviente del Periodo Intermedio Tardío en el Cuzco. Las excavaciones en una serie de grandes estructuras con nichos revelan que estas funcionaron como galpones destinados para rituales y fiestas. La presencia de cantidades de vasijas polícromas de servicio y ceremoniales, así como de bienes suntuarios de alta calidad demuestran que individuos de elite se vieron involucrados en diversos actos rituales y festines realizados en ese lugar. De la misma manera, la presencia de obras hidráulicas elaboradas y entierros humanos en los muros parecen sugerir que estos tuvieron la función de edificios propios de linajes para rendir culto a sus ancestros. El plano de planta de la arquitectura y la estructura general, así como los fechados radiocarbónicos aluden a que una entidad política compleja tuvo su sede en Chokepukio durante tres o cuatro siglos entre la caída del imperio wari y el ascenso de los incas. Esta entidad política proporciona un caso de continuidad esencial en el manejo administrativo y una infraestructura preservada. El ascenso meteórico de los incas se debió, con seguridad, a que su génesis se dio en un ambiente políticamente más complejo de lo que se había creído antes.

Puerto Chancay Archaeological Rescue Project: Preliminary ResultsThis note presents the preliminary results of the Archaeological Rescue Project Puerto Chancay. (November 1993 to November 1994). The excavations revealed a long occupation sequence lasting from the Early Intermediate to the Late Intermediate Periods. / En el presente artículo se presentan los resultados preliminares del Proyecto de Rescate Arqueológico Puerto Chancay realizado entre noviembre de 1993 y noviembre de 1994. En estas se evidencia una larga ocupación prehispánica de la zona que va desde el Periodo Intermedio Temprano hasta el Intermedio Tardío.

Archaeology and Ethnohistory at VilcashuamánThis paper presents information on human occupation at Vilcashuaman based on written and material evidence which allow to trace its historical process. Special attention is dedicated to ceramics and architecture of the central highland people during the Late Intermediate Period in order to explain the Inca occupation of this area. / Se presenta información sobre la ocupación de Vilcashuamán, a partir de evidencias documentales y monumentales que permiten esbozar su proceso histórico, poniendo énfasis en la descripción de las características sobre la cerámica y la arquitectura de los pueblos de la sierra central durante el Periodo Intermedio Tardío, para poder explicar luego la ocupación incaica de la zona.

Ceremonial Architecture at Cerro Azul: The Huarco Polity and Inca OccupationThis article is an architectonic study of the archeological site of Cerro Azul, which was constructed and occupied by the Kingdom de Huarco from approx. 1100-1470 A.D. and reoccupied by the administration of the Inca empire. The unique architecture of the site was adapted to its seaside setting and its geographical surroundings. The part of the building analyzed here —Structure I— provides an example for allowing us to understand the cosmological vision, including its ritual functions, on the basis of which this site was laid out. / El presente artículo está basado en un estudio arquitectónico del sitio arqueológico de Cerro Azul, edificado por la sociedad del señorío de Huarco (1100-1470 d.C.) y reocupado por la administración inca. La organización espacial está definida por su cercana relación con el mar y por los accidentes geográficos que lo circundan, lo que le otorga un carácter especial al paisaje en el que la arquitectura se inserta. El edificio analizado, la Estructura I, da pautas para comprender una cosmovisión donde los espacios debieron diseñarse en función de eventos rituales consistentes.

Priests and Weavers in the Inka Province of PachacamacBy following the principle that offerings, accompanying the dead, can be used effectively to determine the former occupation the deceased, we can extend our knowledge of the social organisation of the Province of  Pachacamac. The meaning of offerings in terms of level of social status and occupation is interpreted by artifacts which probably belonged the deceased, including those which would include personal items and the tools of the trade, both of which would confirm what kind of social status the deceased enjoyed and what trade he or she pursued. This suits particularly well if the tools and other instruments for specific tasks show signs of wear and if there are half-finished products, such as textiles or nets. In this article I want to identify aspects concerning two specialists groups: the priests and weavers. / Investigaciones arqueológicas han comprobado que, durante el Periodo Intermedio Tardío y el Horizonte Tardío, algunos contextos funerarios son diagnósticos en la identificación de especialidades u oficios laborales. Esto puede demostrarse en la provincia inka de Pachacamac y en este artículo se intenta caracterizar algunos aspectos de dos grupos de especialistas identificados por el análisis arqueológico, apoyado por importantes y reveladoras informaciones etnohistóricas. Es interés del autor mostrar los resultados de sus investigaciones respecto a los sacerdotes y tejedores andinos.

Anthropomorphic Effigy Vases: A Silvermith’s Production during the Late Intermediate Period and Late HorizonAnthropomorphic effigy vases have been classified, without any scientific basis, as belonging to the Chimu Culture. This investigation shows how these kinds of vases are more related in iconography as well as in provenance with the iconography of the central coast of Peru. In a selection of nine vases analysed, we determine different techniques of manufacture, which indicate the high technological complexity achieved by the precolumbian metal smiths during the Late Intermediate period and the Late Horizon. This study seeks to clarify, with the help of historic and ethnographic documentation, the social importance of the silversmith’s workshops that elaborated the effigy vases in question. We hope through the study of these archaeological remains and their comparison with historical texts, to decipher the symbolic and ritual value, as well as possible religious influences in their manufacture along the Peruvian coast. Finally, the possible process used by the coastal metal smiths in the manufacture of the effigy vases was identified by means of electronic microscope and metalographic analysis. / Desde hace mucho tiempo, un tipo especial de objetos rituales —los vasos-efigie antropomorfos de metal— han sido clasificados, sin sustento científico, como pertenecientes a la cultura Chimú. La investigación llevada a cabo por las autoras demuestra cómo este tipo de vasos está más relacionado, tanto en iconografía como en procedencia, con la temática iconográfica de la costa central del Perú. Se trata de un corpus de nueve vasos analizados con el que se determinaron diferentes técnicas de manufactura que muestran la alta complejidad tecnológica lograda por los orfebres tanto en el Periodo Intermedio Tardío como en el Horizonte Tardío. Para la realización de dicha investigación se ha utilizado documentación tanto histórica como etnográfica, las que permitieron explicar la posible importancia social de los talleres de los orfebres o plateros que manufacturaron dichos vasos. Estudios comparativos entre los restos arqueológicos con textos históricos ayudaron a descifrar el valor simbólico o ritual para el que fueron elaborados y su posible influencia religiosa en otros lugares de la costa peruana. Por último, los análisis metalográficos y microscopía electrónica identificaron las posibles formas de manufactura utilizadas en estos vasos por los antiguos orfebres o plateros de la costa.