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This thesis takes as its ethnographic focus the Isle of Man, a British Crown Dependency. In the 1960s, the Manx government faced an economic crisis. The response was to open the Island to international banking, becoming an 'offshore' financial centre. The new industry sector has encouraged substantial immigration, to the extent that the Island-born are now in the minority. The Island now has economic success on one hand, but a new 'identity' crisis of cultural confidence on the other, raising the question 'what is it (now), to be Manx?' The Manx have always accepted incomers and are not, or ever have been, a clearly defined ethnic group. Rather 'Manxness' is an idea, a set of values, a way of relating to place and to each other. Defined thus, 'Manx identity' could be, and has been, shared with incomers. The current situation is, however, perceived as substantially different in its speed and volume, resulting in concerns that Manx culture and identity is disappearing under the weight of an alien cultural import. Reaction is demonstrated in renewed interest in the Manx Gaelic language and other 'traditiona1' pursuits, with individuals selecting routes to identification with place that satisfy personal motivations. Included in this performance of culture are members of the 'incomer' group blamed for its demise, while many Island-born show little concern. Through subtle analysis of this complex context, I add to anthropological understanding of 'identity' and 'way of life' by juxtaposing personal and collective responses to this process of change, and investigating the importance of scales of difference. And, in a disciplinary context that has shifted attention from bounded to boundless 'homes', I ask how far anthropological constructions go in explicating how and why our informants still struggle to strike a meaningful balance between their roots of and routes to identity.

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This thesis explores the relationship between proto-democracy, multiculturalism, and state formation. In the introduction, I express the desire to ascertain how legal multiculturalism on the Isle of Man could be viewed as a product of the shared proto-democratic character of the Irish and the Norse legal traditions. Further, I wish to explore how this multiculturalism influenced the development of the state on the island and, coming full circle, what multiculturalism and state formation meant for the future of proto-democracy on the island. In this thesis, I conclude that many of the institutions that played a role in fostering state formation on Man, such as the keys, coroners, and parishes, were themselves a product of legal multiculturalism. Further, I argue that this legal multiculturalism and state formation in turn results in a loss of institutions on Man that characterized the separate legal traditions as proto-democracies. / Master of Arts

Meu trabalho propõe uma investigação sobre as possíveis representações imagéticas do heroi semilegendário Sigurðr Fáfnisbani em uma pequena ínsula no meio do Mar irlandês conhecida como Ilha de Man. Essa região foi habitada por populações celtas e cristianizadas desde o século V, mas assistiram a chegada de novas levas humanas provindas da Escandinávia em c.875. As representações evocadas foram cinzeladas entre meados do século X e o início do século XI sobre quatro lajes de pedra, ainda que elas componham um conjunto maior de monumentos congêneres. Após muitos séculos, a rigor, no final do século XIX, os quatro artefatos foram intitulados como Cruzes de Sigurðr. Minha preocupação inicial foi apresentar as cruzes de maneira abrangente, o contexto geográfico e sociocultural da Ilha de Man, tal como as mudanças políticas e religiosas que ela enfrentou durante a Era Viking. Tentei demonstrar como essas cruzes serviram como um índice do novo cenário de transformação socioreligiosa e de amálgama cultural em território manx. A seguir, propus debates teóricos sobre a runologia, o principal campo de estudos escandinavos dedicado a esses monumentos em pedra, e os estudos de estilos artísticos escandinavos, além de sua influência sobre o que os intelectuais manx propuseram sobre as Cruzes de Sigurðr. Após isso, fiz um balanço dos estudos sobre as representações de Sigurðr nas cruzes manx. Por fim, eu apresentei uma análise descritiva-formal e sintática das possíveis representações sigurdianas nas quatro cruzes. Minha conclusão foi que não é possível ter certeza que elas representam o herói, mas certamente são monumentos seculares com um relevante impacto na paisagem dos pontos de vista social e religioso, como demonstrações de poder e forma de controle sobre a sociedade circunvizinha. Elas também expressam possíveis alianças matrimoniais e políticas dos habitantes manx em uma sociedade muito transformada após a chegada dos novos colonos nórdicos. / My work proposes an investigation on the possible imagetical representations of the semilegendary hero Sigurðr Fáfnisbani in the Isle of Man, a small island in the middle of the Irish Sea. This region was historically inhabited by celtic and christians populations since the 5th century; However at the end of 9th century, they received a new contingent of inhabitants from Scandinavia. The representations above mentioned were sculptured between the middle of 10th century and the beginning of the 11th century on four cross slabs; Nevertheless they belonged to a major group of similar monuments. But only after many centuries, the four arctefacts were entitled as Sigurðr crosses (or slabs). My first concern was to expose the crosses in a broader view, their geographical and sociocultural context in the Isle of Man, as well as the political and religious changes beeing faced during the Viking Age. Ive also proposed that these crosses were an index of a new socioreligious scenario, in a deep cultural amalgamation and transformations in manx region. Hereafter, I have exposed many theories on runology, the main field of studies on these rock monuments, and also a summary of questions and characteristics of Scandinavian art studies, mainly about style studies. Both perspectives had a strong influence on manx intellectual milieu and their ideas about Sigurðr crosses. After this, I exposed briefly the main works about Sigurðrs representation on manx crosses. At the end, I proposed a descriptive, formal and syntax analysis of these possible representations of the hero. My conclusion was that it is not possible to be sure that the hero was displayed on these rocks. But, on the other hand, they certainly provided an important impact on manx social and religious landscape, as well as demonstrations of power and social control. They can also be taken as signs of matrimonial and political alliances of manx aristocracy.

Šioje disertacijoje tyrinėjami keltų ir skandinavų kalbų ir kultūriniai kontaktai Vikingų laikotarpiu, atnešę esminių permainų abiems kultūroms. Vikingų epochos Meno salos runų įrašai savo forma, turiniu bei kalbos ypatybėmis skiriasi nuo skandinaviškų runų korpuso. Šios salos runų įrašams įtakos turėjo Ogamo įrašų tradicija, dėl kurios runų tradicija suklestėjo Meno saloje Vikingų laikotarpiu. Vienas iš unikaliausių bruožų yra taip vadinamieji dvikalbiai runakmeniai, kur greta runų įrašo yra Ogamo įrašas, išraižytas ant akmens tuo pat metu kaip ir runos. Svarbus Meno salos runų įrašų skiriamasis bruožas – jų kalbiniai ypatumai. Viena vertus, runose gausu keltiškų vardų, antra vertus, galima pastebėti, jog senosios skandinavų kalbos gramatika gerokai pakitusi. Ištyrus runų įrašus matyti, kaip skandinavų kalbos gramatika keičiasi dvikalbėje visuomenėje. Antroje disertacijos dalyje aptariami keltiški elementai vienintelėje išlikusioje norn kalba užrašytoje „Baladėje apie Hildiną“, kuri buvo sukurta nuolat besikeičiančioje kalbinėje, socialinėje ir kultūrinėje aplinkoje. Jūrinės Šetlando ir Orknio salų visuomenės generavo įvairius pasakojimus, kurių motyvai ir elementai atkeliaudavo iš įvairių kraštų. „Baladė apie Hildiną“ yra neabejotinai vakarų skandinavų kilmės, tačiau joje aptinkama keltiškų motyvų. Baladės teksto analizė rodo, jog pasakojimo lygmenyje ji yra nemažai pasiskolinusi iš keltų pasakojamosios tradicijos. Ypač ryški „karaliaus ir deivės tema“. Tačiau jei ir būta... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / This dissertation deals with Viking Age Celtic and Scandinavian language and cultural contacts which resulted in profound changes in both societies. Viking Age rune-stones found in the Isle of Man contain some exceptional features and in many ways diverge from the rest of the Scandinavian runic corpus. Presence of the Ogam tradition in the Isle of Man might have been one of the factors why rune-stones were so well accepted and flourished in the isle during the Viking Age. One of the most unique features is the presence of bilingual runic-Ogam inscriptions which were carved at the same time as runic inscriptions and not earlier. Linguistic research of the Manx rune-inscriptions revealed the influence of Celtic upon Scandinavian language. First of all, rune-inscriptions contain a lot of Celtic personal names. Besides, there are many cases of inflectional confusion that is likely to arise in a bilingual society. The second part of the dissertation discusses Celtic elements in the only surviving ballad in Norn language Hildinavisen, which seems to have been created in continually changing linguistic, social and cultural conditions. The marine societies of Shetland and Orkney Islands generated various stories, where motifs and elements traveled from various directions. Hildinavisen is certainly of West Scandinavian origin, but it contains or rather is adorned with Celtic motifs. The analysis of the text of Hildinavisen seems to indicate that in the level of the story Hildinavisen... [to full text]