Copolímeros casca-núcleo de poli(acrilato de butila) (núcleo) e poliestireno (casca) foram sintetizados por meio de polimerização em emulsão, conduzida em duas etapas. A adição de ácido itacônico como monômero funcional na polimerização do núcleo foi realizada para verificar seu efeito sobre suas propriedades mecânicas e de processamento. Os copolímeros foram caracterizados por espalhamento dinâmico de luz (DLS), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET), cromatografia de exclusão por tamanho (SEC), espectrometria na região do infravermelho (FTIR) e calorimetria diferencial por varredura (DSC). A incorporação do monômero funcional foi confirmada por DSC e quantificada por titulação. A proporção de poli(acrilato de butila) e poliestireno influenciou diretamente o processamento e as propriedades mecânicas do polímero. Os copolímeros com teores de poliestireno acima de 50% foram processados por compressão e extrusão a temperatura ambiente, apresentando comportamento baroplástico. A presença do monômero funcional não alterou o processamento do polímero e melhorou significativamente sua resistência à tração, aumentando sua tenacidade / Core shell copolymers of poly(butyl acrylate) cores and polystyrene shells were synthesized in a two-stage emulsion polymerization. The addition of itaconic acid as functional monomer in the core polymerization was carried out in order to study its influence on polymer processing and mechanical properties. The copolymers were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The functional monomer incorporation was confirmed by DSC and quantified by titration. The poly(butyl acrylate) and polystyrene proportions had a direct influence on the polymer processing and mechanical properties. Copolymers with polystyrene contents higher than 50% presented baroplastic behavior and they could be processed at room temperature by compression molding and extrusion. The presence of itaconic acid did not affect polymer processing and significantly improved tensile resistance, increasing its toughness

Copolímeros casca-núcleo de poli(acrilato de butila) (núcleo) e poliestireno (casca) foram sintetizados por meio de polimerização em emulsão, conduzida em duas etapas. A adição de ácido itacônico como monômero funcional na polimerização do núcleo foi realizada para verificar seu efeito sobre suas propriedades mecânicas e de processamento. Os copolímeros foram caracterizados por espalhamento dinâmico de luz (DLS), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET), cromatografia de exclusão por tamanho (SEC), espectrometria na região do infravermelho (FTIR) e calorimetria diferencial por varredura (DSC). A incorporação do monômero funcional foi confirmada por DSC e quantificada por titulação. A proporção de poli(acrilato de butila) e poliestireno influenciou diretamente o processamento e as propriedades mecânicas do polímero. Os copolímeros com teores de poliestireno acima de 50% foram processados por compressão e extrusão a temperatura ambiente, apresentando comportamento baroplástico. A presença do monômero funcional não alterou o processamento do polímero e melhorou significativamente sua resistência à tração, aumentando sua tenacidade / Core shell copolymers of poly(butyl acrylate) cores and polystyrene shells were synthesized in a two-stage emulsion polymerization. The addition of itaconic acid as functional monomer in the core polymerization was carried out in order to study its influence on polymer processing and mechanical properties. The copolymers were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The functional monomer incorporation was confirmed by DSC and quantified by titration. The poly(butyl acrylate) and polystyrene proportions had a direct influence on the polymer processing and mechanical properties. Copolymers with polystyrene contents higher than 50% presented baroplastic behavior and they could be processed at room temperature by compression molding and extrusion. The presence of itaconic acid did not affect polymer processing and significantly improved tensile resistance, increasing its toughness

Hintergrund: Die Synthese von Chemikalien aus fossilen Rohstoffen wird wegen ihrer begrenzten Verfügbarkeit und ihren negativen Auswirkungen auf die Umwelt zunehmend kritisch bewertet. Eine Alternative bietet die „Weiße Biotechnologie“, insbesondere die Fermentation nachwachsender Rohstoffe mithilfe von Hefen. Die oleophilen Hefen Pseudozyma (P.) tsukubaensis und Yarrowia (Y.) lipolytica sind natürliche Säureproduzenten. Ihre Hauptprodukte sind Metabolite des Tricarbonsäurezyklus: Citrat (CA), α-Ketoglutarat und Malat. In kleineren Mengen werden auch andere Stoffe wie Isocitrat (ICA) oder Itaconat (ITA, nur von P. tsukubaensis) sekretiert. Das Interesse an den beiden Letztgenannten hat in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten stetig zugenommen. Bis heute gibt es allerdings keinen etablierten Wirtsorganismus für die ICA-Produktion. ITA hingegen wird mithilfe von Aspergillus terreus synthetisiert. Jedoch stößt die ITA-Produktivität dieses Hyphenpilzes auch mit großem wissenschaftlichem Aufwand an ihre Grenzen. Daher wird ein neuer Wirtsorganismus benötigt. Ergebnisse: In dieser Studie wurden ein vielversprechender P. tsukubaensis-Stamm für die Produktion von ITA und ein Y. lipolytica-Stamm für ICA konstruiert. Zunächst wurde das Genom von P. tsukubaensis sequenziert. Infolgedessen wurde ein Gencluster für die Synthese und den Export von ITA identifiziert, das homolog zu dem von Ustilago maydis ist. Die Überexpression von vier der fünf Clustergene erhöhte die ITA-Sekretion nicht deutlich. Das fünfte Gen kodiert den vermeintlichen Transkriptionsfaktor Ria1p, der vermutlich das Gencluster steuert. Die Überexpression des PtRIA1 Gens führte zu einer signifikant erhöhten ITA-Produktion von bis zu 31,4 g/l in Mikrotiterplatten. Durch die Optimierung der Wachstumsbedingungen wurden im Bioreaktor innerhalb von 7 d 113,6 g/l ITA ohne die Notwendigkeit eines Triggers produziert. Für die ICA-Produktion wurden zwei mutmaßliche mitochondriale Citrat-Transportproteine in Y. lipolytica identifiziert, welche von den Genen YlCTP1 sowie YlYHM2 kodiert werden. Die Funktionsweise der beiden Proteine scheint sich stark voneinander zu unterscheiden. Die Deletion von YlCTP1 führte zu einer leichten Verschiebung des ICA:CA-Verhältnisses, aber die Gesamtmenge beider Säuren nahm stark ab. Durch die Deletion von YlYHM2 stieg die ICA:CA-Produktrate von 12 % auf 95 % im Vergleich zum Wildtyp. Innerhalb von 5 d wurden bis zu 131,9 g/l ICA mit Sonnenblumenöl, bzw. 22,0 g/l ICA mit Glukose als einzige Kohlenstoffquelle in einem Bioreaktor unter kontrollierten Produktionsbedingungen erreicht. Durch die zusätzliche Hemmung des Isocitratlyase-Proteins mit ITA stieg das ICA:CA-Verhältnis bis 98 %. Fazit: Mittels Metabolic Engineering wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit die beiden Hefestämme P. tsukubaensis HR12 und Y. lipolytica ΔYHM2 erzeugt. Mit ihrer Hilfe ist es möglich, die hochwertigen Chemikalien ITA oder ICA in hohen Mengen (> 100 g/l) aus nachwachsenden Rohstoffen wie Glukose oder sogar Pflanzenölen herzustellen. / Background: The synthesis of chemicals from fossil fuels is being evaluated increasingly critically, mainly due to its expected exhaustion and negative impact on the environment. An alternative offers ‘white biotechnology’, especially the fermentation of renewable resources with the help of yeasts. The oleophilic yeast species Pseudozyma (P.) tsukubaensis and Yarrowia (Y.) lipolytica are both natural organic acid producers. Their main products are metabolites of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, namely citrate, α-ketoglutarate and malate. In smaller amounts, other compounds like isocitrate (ICA) or itaconate (ITA, solely with P. tsukubaensis) are also secreted. The interest for the latter two has been rising steadily during the last decades. However, to this date, there is no established host organism for the ICA production. ITA, on the other hand, is being synthesised with Aspergillus terreus. Even with great scientific effort, the ITA productivity of this hyphal fungus appears to reach its limits. Therefore, a different host organism is needed. Results: In this study, a promising P. tsukubaensis strain has been constructed for the production of ITA and a Y. lipolytica strain for ICA. First, the genome of the ITA producer P. tsukubaensis has been sequenced. As a result, a gene cluster for the synthesis and export of ITA, homologous to that of Ustilago maydis, has been identified. By overexpressing four of the five cluster genes, respectively, none to low increases in ITA secretion were observed. The fifth gene is encoding the putative transcription factor Ria1p which probably controls the gene cluster. The overexpression of the gene PtRIA1 led to a significantly increased ITA production of up to 31.4 g/l in micro-wells. By optimizing the growth conditions 113.6 g/l ITA could be produced within 7 d under controlled conditions in a bioreactor without the need of a trigger like phosphate limitation. For the production of ICA, two putative mitochondrial citric acid transporter proteins were identified in Y. lipolytica. One carrier protein is encoded by the novel gene YlYHM2, the other one by YlCTP1. The mode of function for the two deduced proteins appears to be very distinct from one another. The deletion of YlCTP1 led to a minor shift in the ICA:CA ratio but the total amount of acids decreased greatly. By deleting YlYHM2, the ICA:CA product ratio could be increased from 12 % to 95 % compared to the wild type strain. Within 5 d up to 131.9 g/l ICA with sunflower oil and 22.0 g/l with glucose as the sole carbon source could be achieved under controlled production conditions in a bioreactor. Further inhibition of the isocitrate lyase protein with ITA increased the ICA:CA ratio to 98 %. Conclusion: Within this work, the two yeast strains P. tsukubaensis (HR12) and Y. lipolytica (ΔYHM2) have been created via metabolic engineering. With their help, it is possible to produce the value-added chemicals ITA or ICA on a high scale (> 100 g/l) from renewable resources like glucose or even vegetable oils.

Neste trabalho foram desenvolvidas micropartículas híbridas em pó constituídas de uma matriz biodegradável de quitosana incorporada de partículas de nanogéis biocompatíveis sensíveis à temperatura e/ou ao pH para controlar a liberação de cetoprofeno e aumentar sua solubilidade. Cetoprofeno foi encapsulado em nanopartículas de poli(Nvinilcaprolactama- co-ácido itacônico-co-dimetacrilato de etilenoglicol) (poli(NVCL-co- AI-co-EGDMA)-cetoprofeno), sintetizadas via polimerização por precipitação, as quais foram incorporadas em matriz de quitosana (95% desacetilada e Mv) com os objetivos de melhorar a adesão das micropartículas híbridas no local de liberação e de auxiliar no controle de liberação do fármaco. As micropartículas híbridas de quitosana/poli(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA)-cetoprofeno foram preparadas por interação eletrostática entre os polímeros dispersos em meio aquoso, seguida de secagem por pulverização (spray drying) a fim de melhorar a estabilidadedas micropartículas. Inicialmente foi realizado um estudo sobre a influência das concentrações de monômeros e de iniciador no diâmetro hidrodinâmico (Dh) e na sensibilidade à temperatura e ao pH das partículas de nanogéis. Duas formulações de nanogéis contendo partículas com diferentes valores de Dh (R51 = 185,9 nm e R50 = 120,6 nm) foram utilizadas para a encapsulação de cetoprofeno. As morfologias das partículas de nanogel e das micropartículas híbridas foram avaliadas por microscopias eletrônicas de transmissão e de varredura, respectivamente. Calorimetria diferencial de varredura (DSC), difração de raios X (DRX) e espectroscopia de infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (FTIR) foram utilizadas para analisar as propriedades térmicas, confirmar a encapsulação de cetoprofeno e avaliar qualitativamente a composição dos materiais e interações entre as matrizes poliméricas, respectivamente. Os resultados mostraram que o cetoprofeno foi amorfizado e encapsulado pela matriz de poli(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA), com uma eficiência de encapsulação de 39,6% e 57,8% para as partículas R50 e R51, respectivamente. As matrizes poliméricas de quitosana e de poli(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA) interagiram durante a sua mistura física e durante o processo de secagem, e a cristalinidade da quitosana diminuiu com a incorporação de partículas de nanogel em sua matriz. Os testes de liberação de cetoprofeno in vitro mostraram que as partículas de nanogéis conseguiram controlar a liberação de cetoprofeno e que liberaram 100% do fármaco encapsulado durante 52h de teste, na condição de pH 7,4 e a 37°C. Os testes também evidenciaram que o tamanho das partículas de nanogel foi o parâmetro que mais interferiu na difusão do cetoprofeno pelas partículas, e que a liberação de cetoprofeno foi mais acelerada para as partículas menores (reação R50). Nas mesmas condições de teste, a incorporação das partículas de nanogel na matriz de quitosana causou um retardo na liberação do cetoprofeno, devido à insolubilidade da quitosana no pH 7,4. E os resultados mostraram que para as micropartículas híbridas com maior concentração de partículas de nanogel com relação à massa de quitosana, a liberação de cetoprofeno foi menos acentuada. Isso ocorreu devido ao maior número de interações entre as matrizes poliméricas, o que limitou o contato das partículas de nanogel com o meio de liberação e diminuiu o grau de liberdade de suas cadeias poliméricas. / In this work, powdered hybrid microparticles composed by a chitosan biodegradable matrix embedded with biocompatible and thermo- and pH-responsive particles-based nanogels were developed and used to control the ketoprofen release and to increase its solubility. Ketoprofen was loaded in poly(N-vinylcaprolactam-co-itaconic acid-coethylene glycol dimethacrylate)-based nanogels (poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA)- ketoprofen) synthetized by precipitation polymerization, which were embedded in chitosan matrix (95% deacetilation and Mv) aiming to improve the mucoadhesive properties of hybrid microparticles on the targeted tissue and to support in the control of drug release. Hybrid microparticles of chitosan/poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA)- ketoprofen were prepared by electrostatic interactions between polymers dispersed in aqueous media and spray-dried in order to improve the microparticles stability. First, it was carried out a study about the influence of monomers and initiator concentrations in the size (hydrodynamic diameter) and thermo- and pH-responsiveness properties of particles-based nanogels. Two formulations of nanogels with different particle sizes (R51 = 185.9 nm e R50 = 120.6 nm) were used to encapsulate ketoprofen. The morphology of particles-based nanogels and hybrid microparticles was studied by transmission and scanning electron microscopies, respectively. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to study thermal properties, to confirm encapsulation of ketoprofen and qualitatively evaluate the composition of materials and interactions between polymeric matrices, respectively. The results showed that ketoprofen was converted from the crystalline to the amorphous state and was encapsulated by poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA) matrix, with an encapsulation efficiency of 39.6% and 57.8%, for particles R50 and R51, respectively. Polymeric matrices of chitosan and poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA) interacted during their mixture and drying process, and chitosan crystallinity decreased as a result of the incorporation of particles-based nanogels in their matrix. In vitro release tests of ketoprofen showed that poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA)-based nanogels controlled the delivery of ketoprofen and 100% of ketoprofen-loaded has been released after 52h of the tests, carried out in pH 7.4 at 37°C. These tests also showed that the particles-based nanogels size was the parameter that most interfered in the ketoprofen diffusion by particles and that the ketoprofen release from smaller particles (R50 reaction) was faster. Under the same conditions, the incorporation of poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA)-based nanogels in chitosan matrix slowed the ketoprofen release, due to insolubility of chitosan in the media at pH 7.4. The results showed that hybrid microparticles with a higher concentration of particles-based nanogels, with respect to the mass of chitosan, the release of ketoprofen was less pronounced. It was due to the greater number of interactions between the polymer matrices, which limited the contact of particles-based nanogels with the media of release and reduced the degree of freedom of the polymeric chains.

Protein therapeutics offer numerous advantages over small molecule drugs and are rapidly becoming one of the most prominent classes of therapeutics. Unfortunately, they are delivered almost exclusively by injection due to biological obstacles preventing high bioavailability via the oral route. In this work, numerous approaches to overcoming these barriers are explored. PH-Responsive poly(itaconic acid-co-N-vinylpyrrolidone) (P(IA-co-NVP)) hydrogels were synthesized, and the effects of monomer ratios, crosslinking density, microparticle size, protein size, and loading conditions were systematically evaluated using in vitro tests. P(IA-co-NVP) hydrogels demonstrated up to 69% greater equilibrium swelling at neutral conditions than previously-studied poly(methacrylic acid-co-N-vinylpyrrolidone) hydrogels and a 10-fold improvement in time-sensitive swelling experiments. Furthermore, P(IA-co-NVP) hydrogel microparticles demonstrated up to a 2.7-fold improvement in delivery of salmon calcitonin (sCT) compared to methacrylic acid-based systems, with a formulation comprised of a 1:2 ratio of itaconic acid to N-vinylpyrrolidone demonstrating the greatest delivery capability. Vast improvement in delivery capability was achieved using reduced ionic strength conditions during drug loading. Use of a 1.50 mM PBS buffer during loading yielded an 83-fold improvement in delivery of sCT compared to a standard 150 mM buffer. With this improvement, a daily dose of sCT could be provided using P(IA-co-NVP) microparticles in one standard-sized gel capsule. P(IA-co-NVP) was also tested with larger proteins urokinase and Rituxan. Crosslinking density provided a facile method for tuning hydrogels to accommodate a wide range of protein sizes. The effects of protein PEGylation were also explored. PEGylated sCT displayed lower release from P(IA-co-NVP) microparticles, but displayed increased apparent permeability across a Caco-2 monolayer by two orders of magnitude. Therefore, PEG-containing systems could yield high bioavailability of orally delivered proteins. Finally, a modified SELEX protocol for cellular selection of transcellular transport-initiating aptamers was developed and used to identify aptamer sequences showing enhanced intestinal perfusion. Over three selection cycles, the selected aptamer library showed significant increases in absorption, and from an initial library of 1.1 trillion sequences, 5-10 sequences were selected that demonstrated up to 10-fold amplification compared to the naïve library. These sequences could provide a means of overcoming the significant final barrier of intestinal absorption. / text

Neste trabalho foram desenvolvidas micropartículas híbridas em pó constituídas de uma matriz biodegradável de quitosana incorporada de partículas de nanogéis biocompatíveis sensíveis à temperatura e/ou ao pH para controlar a liberação de cetoprofeno e aumentar sua solubilidade. Cetoprofeno foi encapsulado em nanopartículas de poli(Nvinilcaprolactama- co-ácido itacônico-co-dimetacrilato de etilenoglicol) (poli(NVCL-co- AI-co-EGDMA)-cetoprofeno), sintetizadas via polimerização por precipitação, as quais foram incorporadas em matriz de quitosana (95% desacetilada e Mv) com os objetivos de melhorar a adesão das micropartículas híbridas no local de liberação e de auxiliar no controle de liberação do fármaco. As micropartículas híbridas de quitosana/poli(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA)-cetoprofeno foram preparadas por interação eletrostática entre os polímeros dispersos em meio aquoso, seguida de secagem por pulverização (spray drying) a fim de melhorar a estabilidadedas micropartículas. Inicialmente foi realizado um estudo sobre a influência das concentrações de monômeros e de iniciador no diâmetro hidrodinâmico (Dh) e na sensibilidade à temperatura e ao pH das partículas de nanogéis. Duas formulações de nanogéis contendo partículas com diferentes valores de Dh (R51 = 185,9 nm e R50 = 120,6 nm) foram utilizadas para a encapsulação de cetoprofeno. As morfologias das partículas de nanogel e das micropartículas híbridas foram avaliadas por microscopias eletrônicas de transmissão e de varredura, respectivamente. Calorimetria diferencial de varredura (DSC), difração de raios X (DRX) e espectroscopia de infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (FTIR) foram utilizadas para analisar as propriedades térmicas, confirmar a encapsulação de cetoprofeno e avaliar qualitativamente a composição dos materiais e interações entre as matrizes poliméricas, respectivamente. Os resultados mostraram que o cetoprofeno foi amorfizado e encapsulado pela matriz de poli(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA), com uma eficiência de encapsulação de 39,6% e 57,8% para as partículas R50 e R51, respectivamente. As matrizes poliméricas de quitosana e de poli(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA) interagiram durante a sua mistura física e durante o processo de secagem, e a cristalinidade da quitosana diminuiu com a incorporação de partículas de nanogel em sua matriz. Os testes de liberação de cetoprofeno in vitro mostraram que as partículas de nanogéis conseguiram controlar a liberação de cetoprofeno e que liberaram 100% do fármaco encapsulado durante 52h de teste, na condição de pH 7,4 e a 37°C. Os testes também evidenciaram que o tamanho das partículas de nanogel foi o parâmetro que mais interferiu na difusão do cetoprofeno pelas partículas, e que a liberação de cetoprofeno foi mais acelerada para as partículas menores (reação R50). Nas mesmas condições de teste, a incorporação das partículas de nanogel na matriz de quitosana causou um retardo na liberação do cetoprofeno, devido à insolubilidade da quitosana no pH 7,4. E os resultados mostraram que para as micropartículas híbridas com maior concentração de partículas de nanogel com relação à massa de quitosana, a liberação de cetoprofeno foi menos acentuada. Isso ocorreu devido ao maior número de interações entre as matrizes poliméricas, o que limitou o contato das partículas de nanogel com o meio de liberação e diminuiu o grau de liberdade de suas cadeias poliméricas. / In this work, powdered hybrid microparticles composed by a chitosan biodegradable matrix embedded with biocompatible and thermo- and pH-responsive particles-based nanogels were developed and used to control the ketoprofen release and to increase its solubility. Ketoprofen was loaded in poly(N-vinylcaprolactam-co-itaconic acid-coethylene glycol dimethacrylate)-based nanogels (poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA)- ketoprofen) synthetized by precipitation polymerization, which were embedded in chitosan matrix (95% deacetilation and Mv) aiming to improve the mucoadhesive properties of hybrid microparticles on the targeted tissue and to support in the control of drug release. Hybrid microparticles of chitosan/poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA)- ketoprofen were prepared by electrostatic interactions between polymers dispersed in aqueous media and spray-dried in order to improve the microparticles stability. First, it was carried out a study about the influence of monomers and initiator concentrations in the size (hydrodynamic diameter) and thermo- and pH-responsiveness properties of particles-based nanogels. Two formulations of nanogels with different particle sizes (R51 = 185.9 nm e R50 = 120.6 nm) were used to encapsulate ketoprofen. The morphology of particles-based nanogels and hybrid microparticles was studied by transmission and scanning electron microscopies, respectively. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to study thermal properties, to confirm encapsulation of ketoprofen and qualitatively evaluate the composition of materials and interactions between polymeric matrices, respectively. The results showed that ketoprofen was converted from the crystalline to the amorphous state and was encapsulated by poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA) matrix, with an encapsulation efficiency of 39.6% and 57.8%, for particles R50 and R51, respectively. Polymeric matrices of chitosan and poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA) interacted during their mixture and drying process, and chitosan crystallinity decreased as a result of the incorporation of particles-based nanogels in their matrix. In vitro release tests of ketoprofen showed that poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA)-based nanogels controlled the delivery of ketoprofen and 100% of ketoprofen-loaded has been released after 52h of the tests, carried out in pH 7.4 at 37°C. These tests also showed that the particles-based nanogels size was the parameter that most interfered in the ketoprofen diffusion by particles and that the ketoprofen release from smaller particles (R50 reaction) was faster. Under the same conditions, the incorporation of poly(NVCL-co-AI-co-EGDMA)-based nanogels in chitosan matrix slowed the ketoprofen release, due to insolubility of chitosan in the media at pH 7.4. The results showed that hybrid microparticles with a higher concentration of particles-based nanogels, with respect to the mass of chitosan, the release of ketoprofen was less pronounced. It was due to the greater number of interactions between the polymer matrices, which limited the contact of particles-based nanogels with the media of release and reduced the degree of freedom of the polymeric chains.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Rice Husks (RH) can be regarded as an abundant lignocellulosic raw material in the Brazilian southern(se for somente regiões do RS, SC e PR fica South region, senão, tá ok) region, renewable and practically without economic added value able to be bioconverted into industrial and pharmochemical products of great interest. The main objective of this dissertation was to search the use of RH for the production of itaconic acid (IA) and, simultaneously, to contribute to the mitigation of a serious environmental problem arising from the improper disposal of the processing residues. For this, RHs were submitted to pressurized acid hydrolysis with diluted HNO3 and H3PO4in accordance with a statistical multivariate planning using Central Composite Rotatable Design (DCCR). The experiments showed that, at 145 °C and reaction time of 28 min, with 3,4% (v v-1) H3PO4, it was produced 44,4 g sugar L-1, by yield of 266,4 mg sugar g-1 RH. By using 3,76% (v v-1) HNO3, the best experimental was 135 ºC and reaction time of 35 min, resulting on a 42,0 g sugar L-1, by yield of 252,0 mg sugar g-1RH. Compared to the results obtained before in our group for chloridric RH hydrolysis, the outcomes of this work were better, considering the concomitant liberation of glucose, xylose and arabinose. However, no additional benefit was found by applying a RH pretreatment with NaOH and NH4OH. Previous fermentative tests were made to find the best conditions for the grown of the Aspergillus terreus (ATCC 7860) fungus in RH hydrolysate, submitting the fermentative process to a central compound experimental design in blocks, evaluating the variables initial pH, temperature, use of yeast extract (YE) and RH origin. 20 mL flasks were used for the batch experiments. The best experiment produced 1,9 g IA L-1, by yield of 132 mg AI g-1 sugars (or 11,4 mg AI g-1 RH), using chloridric hydrolysate (0,8% HCl v v-1), 145 ºC and reation time of 46 min; detoxification with CaO, fermentation medium 50:50 hydrolysate : potato dextrose solution, with 10,0 g YE L-1, initial pH 6,0, 152 h fermentation). The used analytical techniques were HPLC-DAD and -RID, and UV-visible spectrophotometry, including the figures-of-merit and validation of the developed methodologies. It was possible to demonstrate the viability of the production processes of IA from RH, in laboratory scale, contributing to the efforts to the development of the biotechnological research and scientific innovation. / A casca de arroz (CA) pode ser considerada matéria-prima lignocelulósica abundante na região sul-brasileira, renovável e quase sem valor comercial - passível de bioconversão em produtos de grande interesse industrial e farmoquímico. O principal objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar o aproveitamento da CA na produção de ácido itacônico (AI) e, simultaneamente, contribuir para a mitigação de grave problema ambiental oriundo da disposição imprópria deste resíduo de beneficiamento. Para tanto, a CA foi submetida à hidrólise ácida à pressão segundo planejamento estatístico multivariado, usando-se delineamento composto central rotacional (DCCR) para as hidrólises com HNO3 e H3PO4 diluídos. Os experimentos revelaram que, a 145 °C e 28 min de reação, com 3,4% (v v-1) H3PO4, foram produzidos 44,4 g de açúcar L-1, com rendimento de 266,4 mg de açúcar g-1 CA. Empregando-se 3,76% (v v-1) HNO3, a melhor condição experimental foi 135 ºC e 35 min de reação, produzindo-se 42,0 g açúcar L-1, com rendimento de 252,0 mg de açúcar g-1 CA. Comparados a resultados de hidrólises com HCl de trabalhos anteriores desenvolvidos no grupo, os resultados foram superiores, considerando-se a liberação concomitante de glicose, xilose e arabinose. Nenhum benefício adicional foi obtido, porém, com o pré-tratamento da CA com NaOH e NH4OH. Ensaios fermentativos prévios foram feitos com o intuito de encontrar-se as condições mais adequadas ao crescimento do fungo Aspergillus terreus (ATCC 7860) no hidrolisado de CA, submetendo-se o processo fermentativo a planejamento experimental composto central, em blocos, avaliando-se as variáveis pH inicial do meio, temperatura, uso de extrato de levedura (EL) e origem da CA. Utilizaram-se frascos de 20 mL para os experimentos em batelada. O melhor experimento foi aquele que produziu 1,9 g AI L-1, com rendimento de 132 mg AI g-1 açúcares (ou 11,4 mg AI g-1 CA), usando-se hidrolisado clorídrico (0,8% HCl v v-1), temperatura de 145 ºC e 46 min de reação; destoxificação com CaO, meio de fermentação 50:50 hidrolisado : solução de dextrose de batata, com 10,0 g EL-1, pH inicial 6,0, 152 h de fermentação). As técnicas analíticas utilizadas foram HPLC-DAD e -RID, e Espectrofotometria UV-vis, apresentando-se figuras-de-mérito e validação das metodologias desenvolvidas. Foi possível demonstrar a viabilidade do processo de produção de AI a partir da CA, em escala de laboratório, contribuindo-se para o esforço do desenvolvimento da pesquisa biotecnológica e da inovação científica.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] Debido a la preocupación por la contaminación derivada del uso de los plásticos y la gran cantidad de residuos generados a nivel mundial, se desarrollaron diferentes compuestos plásticos reforzados con fibras naturales respetuosos con el medio ambiente (WPC) para su caracterización y optimización. En primer lugar, se utilizó polietileno de alta densidad de base biológica (BioHDPE) como matriz polimérica y diferentes fibras cortas naturales como el cáñamo, el lino y el yute. Se mezclaron mediante extrusión de doble husillo y se moldearon en piezas mediante moldeo por inyección, se añadió un copolímero de injerto de etileno con anhídrido maleico (PE-g-MA) a dos partes por cien de resina al WPC durante el proceso de extrusión para reducir la falta de compatibilidad entre las fibras lignocelulósicas y la matriz polimérica. Como resultado, se observó en el análisis térmico, una ligera mejora de la estabilidad térmica de los compuestos reforzados con las tres fibras, aumentado la temperatura de fusión y de degradación del compuesto. Además, también aumentó la absorción de agua de los compuestos. Se obtuvo, especialmente, un aumento drástico del módulo de Young y de la resistencia al impacto de los compuestos con refuerzo de fibra de cáñamo. Debido a estos resultados, a continuación, se realizó un estudio con la misma matriz polimérica (BioHDPE) y diferentes porcentajes (2,5 a 40,0% en peso) de fibras cortas de cáñamo (HF) como refuerzo natural, utilizando la misma técnica por fusión y extrusión de doble husillo del compuesto que se moldeo por inyección. También se utilizó como agente compatibilizante, el copolímero maleinizado, de injerto de etileno con anhídrido maleico (PE-g-MA) para mejorar la escasa compatibilidad entre la matriz de BioHDPE altamente no polar y las fibras lignocelulósicas altamente hidrofílicas. El 40% en peso de fibra dio como resultado un aumento importante del módulo de Young y la resistencia al impacto del BioHDPE, obteniendo valores de 5275 MPa y 3,6 kJ/m2, respectivamente, en comparación con el bioHDPE puro de 826 MPa y 2,0 kJ/m2. En cuanto al cambio de color de las muestras inyectadas, se observó que el aumento de fibra generó una clara modificación en las tonalidades finales de las piezas, alcanzando colores muy similares a las maderas oscuras para porcentajes superiores al 20%.Finalmente, se desarrollaron nuevos composites de alto rendimiento mediomabiental utilizando un 30% de fibra corta de cáñamo y como matriz polimérica copolímero de polibutilén succinato-co-adipato paracialmente de origen renovable (BioPBSA). En este caso, para mejorar la interacción entre la fibra y la matriz no solo se empleó el injerto copolímero de PBSA injertado con anhídrido maleico (PBSA-g-MA), sino que se utilizaron diferentes aditivos por extrusión reactiva al composite como aditivos derivados del ácido itacónico de base biológica, como el dibutil itaconato (DBI) y un copolímero de PBSA injertado con ácido itacónico (PBSA-g-IA). La introducción de fibras de cáñamo, dieron como resultado una mejora en la rigidez del polímero base, el módulo de tracción del BioPBSA puro 281 MPa aumentó considerablemente alcanzando valores de 3482 MPa. Los compuestos con DBI obtuvieron una mejora en la ductilidad y una disminución en las propiedades de tracción, en contraste con las muestras compatibles con copolímeros que mejoraron la resistencia a la tracción. / [CA] Degut a la preocupació per la contaminació derivada de l'us dels plàstics i la gran quantitat de residus generats a nivell mundial, es desenvoluparen diferents compostos reforçats amb fibres naturals respectuoses amb el medi ambient (WPC) per a la seva caracterització i optimització. En primer lloc, es va utilitzar polietilè d'alta densitat de base biològica (BioHDPE) com a matriu polimèrica i diferents fibres curtes naturals com el cànem, el lli i jute. Es van fondre mitjançant extrusió de doble tornavís i es moldejaren en peces mitjançant moldejat per injecció, es va afegir un copolímer d'empelt d'etlé i anhídrid maleic (PE-g-MA) a dues parts per cent de resina al WPC durant el procés d'extrusió per a reduir la falta de compatibilitat entre les fibres lignocel·lulòsiques i la matriu polimèrica. Com a resultat, es va observar en l'anàlisis tèrmica, una lleugera millora de l'estabilitat tèrmica dels compostos reforçats amb les tres fibres , augmentant la temperatura de fusió i de degradació dels compostos. Es va obtenir, especialment, un augment dràstic del mòdul de Young i de la resistència a l'impacte dels compostos amb reforç de fibra de cànem. Degut a aquestos resultats, a continuació es va realitzar un estudi amb la mateixa matriu polimèrica (BioHDPE) i diferents percentatges (2,5 a 40,0% en pes) de fibra curta de cànem (HF) com a reforç natural, utilitzant la mateixa tècnica per fusió i extrusió de doble tornavís del compost que es va moldejar per injecció. També es va utilitzar com agent compatibilitzant, el copolímer meleinitzat, anhídrid maleic d'empelt de polietilè (PE-g-MA) per millorar l'escassa compatibilitat entre la matriu de BioHDPE altament no polar i les fibres lignocel·lulòsiques altament hidrofíliques. El 40% en pes de fibra va donar com a resultat un augment important del mòdul de Young i la resistència a l'impacte del BioHDPE, obtenint valors de 5275 MPa i 3,6 kJ/m2, respectivament, en comparació amb el bioHDPE pur de 826 MPa i 2,0 kJ/m2. En quant al canvi de color de les mostres injectades, es va observar que l'augment de fibra va generar una clara modificació en les tonalitats finals de les peces, aconseguint colors molt similars a les fustes fosques per a percentatges superiors al 20%.Finalment, es van desenvolupar nous composites d'alt rendiment medioambiental utilitzant un 30% de fibra curta de cànem i com a matriu polimèrica copolímer de polibutilèn succinat-co-adipat paracialment d'origen renovable (BioPBSA). En aquest cas, per millorar la interacció entre la fibra i la matriu no només es va emprar l'empelt copolímer de PBSA empeltat amb anhídrid maleic (PBSA-g-MA), sinó que es van utilitzar diferents additius per extrusió reactiva al composite com a additius derivats de l'àcid itacònic de base biològica, com el dibutil itaconat (DBI) i un copolímer de PBSA empeltat amb àcid itacònic (PBSA-g-IA). La introducció de fibres de cànem, van donar com a resultat una millora en la rigidesa del polímer base, el mòdul de tracció del BioPBSA pur 281 MPa va augmentar considerablement aconseguint valors de 3482 MPa. Els compostos amb DBI van obtenir una millora en la ductilitat i una disminució en les propietats de tracció, en contrast amb les mostres compatibles amb copolímers que van millorar la resistència a la tracció. / [EN] Due to the concern about the pollution derived from the use of plastics and the large amount of waste generated worldwide, different environmentally friendly natural fiber reinforced plastic compounds (WPC) were developed for their characterization and optimization. First, bio-based high-density polyethylene (BioHDPE) was used as the polymer matrix and different natural short fibers such as hemp, flax and jute. They were fused by twin screw extrusion and molded into pieces by injection molding. Polyethylene graft maleic anhydride (PE-g-MA) was added at two parts per hundred resin to the WPC during the extrusion process to reduce the lack of compatibility between the lignocellulosic fibers and the polymeric matrix. As a result, a slight improvement in the thermal stability of the composites reinforced with the three fibers was observed in the thermal analysis, increasing the melting temperature and degradation of the composite. In addition, it also increased the water absorption of the compounds. In particular, a drastic increase in the Young's modulus and the impact resistance of the hemp fiber reinforced composites was obtained. Due to these results, a study was then carried out with the same polymeric matrix (bioHDPE) and different percentages (2,5 to 40,0% by weight) of short hemp fibers (HF) as natural reinforcement, using the same technique by melt compunding and extrusion with a twin screw extruder, followed by injection moulding. The maleinized copolymer, polyethylene graft maleic anhydride (PE-g-MA) was also used as a compatibilizing agent to improve the poor compatibility between the highly non-polar BioHDPE matrix and the highly hydrophilic lignocellulosic fibers. The 40 wt% fiber resulted in a significant increase in Young's modulus and impact strength of BioHDPE, obtaining values of 5275 MPa and 3.6 kJ/m2, respectively, compared to pure bioHDPE of 826 MPa and 826 MPa. 2.0kJ/m2. Regarding the color change of the injected samples, it was observed that the increase in fiber generated a clear change in the final shades of the pieces, reaching colors very similar to dark wood for percentages greater than 20%.Finally, new green composites were developed using 30% short hemp fiber and a partically biobased polybutylene succinate-co-adipate copolymer (BioPBSA) as polymeric matrix. In this case, to improve the interaction between the fiber and the matrix, not only was the PBSA graft copolymer grafted with maleic anhydride (PBSA-g-MA) used, but different additives were used by reactive extrusion to the composite as additives derived from the Bio-based itaconic acid, such as dibutyl itaconate (DBI) and a copolymer of PBSA grafted with itaconic acid (PBSA-g-IA). The introduction of hemp fibers resulted in an improvement in the stiffness of the base polymer, the tensile modulus of pure BioPBSA 281 MPa increased considerably, reaching values of 3482 MPa. Composites with DBI obtained an improvement in ductility and a decrease in tensile properties, in contrast to samples compatible with copolymers that improved tensile strength. / Agradecer al Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) de la Unión Europea por cofinanciar el proyecto “NABITEX—Textiles técnicos innovadores basados en fibras naturales SUDOE para ser aplicados en el Sector del Hábitat” a través del Programa SUDOE de Interreg (SOE2/P1/ P0524). / Dolçà Camáñez, C. (2022). Desarrollo y optimización de wood plastic composites con matriz biopolimérica y fibras naturales [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/185679 / TESIS / Compendio