Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1957. / Typescript. Vita. eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 80-84).

Thesis advisor: Mary F. Roberts / Thesis advisor: Eranthie Weerapana / Small molecules are of interest both as metabolites in tumor cell biology and as potential therapeutics in the fight against cancer. In this work, small molecules in both roles have been examined. Modulation of tumor cell metabolism holds promise as a strategy to combat cancer, and both glucose and glutamine have been identified as critical fuels for tumor cell growth and proliferation. However, the reason for glutamine addiction is poorly understood. The differential metabolism of glutamine and glucose was therefore examined using ¹³C labeling and NMR-based metabolomics in the VM-M3 tumor cell line, which requires both glucose and glutamine for survival and proliferation. In the course of this study, a novel mammalian metabolite itaconic acid was identified. Itaconic acid was detected in extracts and tissue culture media from the murine macrophage-derived tumor cell lines VM-M3 and RAW 264.7 as well as in primary macrophages. Production and secretion of itaconic acid was increased upon stimulation. LC-MS and NMR based metabolomics studies show that this metabolite is synthesized by the decarboxylation of cis-aconitate from the TCA cycle, and provided evidence for a novel mammalian homologue of the enzyme cis-aconitic decarboxylase. D-3-deoxy diC₈PI is a small molecule of interest as a potential cancer therapeutic. This compound was designed to induce apoptosis in tumor cells by competitively binding to the Akt PH domain and preventing Akt translocation. However, high resolution ³¹P field-cycling studies show that both D-3-deoxy diC₈PI and an inactive analogue L-3,5-dideoxy diC₈PI bind to the same site on the PH domain, which is distinct from the binding site of the ligand diC₈PI(3,4,5)P₃. This makes the aforementioned mechanism of cytotoxicity unlikely. Aggregation of the PH domain in the presence of soluble headgroup IP₆ was also observed, which may be related to a physiological function of this protein and invalidates at least one other binding assay. Investigation into alterations in signaling pathways in the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line showed that D-3-deoxy diC₈PI activates the p38MAPK pathway which results in CREB hyperphosphorylation. However, activation of this pathway appears to be compensatory and unrelated to the mechanism of action. D-3-deoxy diC₈PI also decreases levels of cyclin D1 and cyclin D3, which regulate the progression of the cell cycle. These decreases appear to be occurring at the transcriptional level rather than due to increased proteasomal degradation. The loss of these two proteins does not cause apoptosis in MCF-7 cells, but siRNA knockdown of specifically cyclin D1 inhibits proliferation. This is consistent with the cell cycle arrest observed upon D-3-deoxy diC₈PI treatment in these cells. These findings do not conclusively elucidate the mechanism of cytotoxicity of D-3-deoxy diC₈PI, but provide a characterization of some of its effects in the MCF-7 cell line which may be useful for further studies. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2012. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.

Thesis advisor: Mary F. Roberts / Secreted phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase Cs (PI-PLCs) are often virulence factors in pathogenic bacteria. Understanding how these enzymes interact with target membranes may provide novel methods to control bacterial infections. In this work, two typical PI-PLC enzymes, from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and Staphylococcus aureus (Sa), were studied and their membrane binding properties were examined and correlated with enzymatic activity. BtPI-PLC is kinetically activated by allosteric binding of a phosphatidylcholine (PC) molecule. MD simulations of the protein in solution suggested correlated loop and helix motions around the active site could regulate BtPI-PLC activity. Vesicle binding and enzymatic studies of variants of two proline residues, Pro245 and Pro254, that were associated with these motions showed that loss of the correlated motions between the two halves of PI-PLC were more critical for enzymatic activity than for vesicle binding. Furthermore, loss of enzyme activity could be rescued to a large extent with PC present in a vesicle. This suggests that binding to PC changes the enzyme conformation to keep the active site accessible. SaPI-PLC shows 41.3% sequence similarity with BtPI-PLC but has very different ways its activity is regulated. While it is kinetically activated by PC it does not in fact bind to that phospholipid. Enzymatic and membrane interaction assays showed that SaPI-PLC has evolved a complex, apparently unique way to control its access to PI or GPI-anchored substrate. (i) An intramolecular cation-pi latch facilitates soluble product release under acidic conditions without dissociation from the membrane. (ii) There is a cationic pocket on the surface of enzyme that likely modulates the location of the protein. (iii) Dimerization of protein is enhanced in membranes containing phosphatidylcholine (PC), which acts not by specifically binding to the protein, but by reducing anionic lipid interactions with the cationic pocket that stabilizes monomeric protein. SaPI-PLC activity is modulated by competition between binding of soluble anions or anionic lipids to the cationic sensor and transient dimerization on the membrane depleted in anionic phospholipids. This protein also served as a way to test the hypothesis that a cation-pi box provides for PC recognition site. This structural motif was engineered into SaPI-PLC by forming N254Y/H258Y. This variant selectively binds PC-enriched vesicles and the enzyme binding behavior mimics that of BtPI-PLC. Itaconic acid (ITA) is a metabolite synthesized in macrophages and related cell lines by a cis-aconitate decarboxylase (cADC). cADC activity is dramatically increased upon macrophage stimulation. In this work, the cell line RAW264.7 was used to show that cADC activity upon stimulation requires de novo protein synthesis. MS analyses of partially purified RAW264.7 protein extracts from stimulated cells show a large increase for immunoresponsive gene 1 protein (IRG1) and siRNA knockdown of the IRG1 reduces cADC activity upon stimulation. Suspected active site residues of IRG1 were identified by mutagenesis studies of the recombinant protein based on a homology structure model of fungal cADC. The cloning and overexpression of this enzyme should help clarify the cofactor-independent decarboxylation mechanism of this mammalian enzyme as well as open up future studies into the specific role of ITA in the mammalian immune system and cancers. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2013. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.

Introdução: Produtos confeccionados a partir de materiais não biodegradáveis têm trazido um grande problema para a sociedade nos dias de hoje. A facilidade de utilização e manipulação dos produtos descartáveis leva a um aumento do consumo, podendo gerar danos para o meio ambiente, quando não há forma eficiente para o tratamento do mesmo. Materiais como fraldas, absorventes e curativos são exemplos de bens de consumo que apresentam Poliacrilato de Sódio, o qual é um polímero superabsorvente não biodegradável, como o principal constituinte destes produtos. O Poliacrilato de Sódio tornou-se muito conhecido a partir da década de 80 quando as fraldas descartáveis começaram a ser comercializadas. Atualmente, são consumidas aproximadamente 18 bilhões de fraldas todos os anos, apenas nos Estados Unidos. Devido aos impactos ambientais que este composto tem gerado, a ciência tem buscado polímeros que possam substituir o Poliacrilato de Sódio nas suas principais características, como superabsorção e alta cinética de intumescimento. Objetivo: No âmbito de desenvolver materiais que possam substituí-lo, buscou-se, neste trabalho, um monômero que apresentasse, em sua molécula, a presença de cadeia carboxílica a qual é a parte altamente hidrofílica. Metodologia: Neste trabalho, foi explorado o monômero de ácido Itacônico como possível substituinte do Poliacrilato de Sódio. Esta substância, além de ser caracterizada pela presença de estruturas hidrofílicas, também é biodegradável. Foram feitas análises de grau de intumescimento do material tanto na forma de gel quanto na forma microgel. A morfologia e a biodegradabilidade do material também foram estudadas. Concomitantemente, foi realizada a padronização do Poliacrilato de sódio para que este fosse utilizado como instrumento comparativo para a avaliação do grau de intumescimento, morfologia e degradabilidade. Hidrogéis de ácido itacônico foram assim analisados e avaliados com o hidrogel de poliacrilato de sódio e os resultados comparados. Resultados: Embora o grau de intumescimento do gel de ácido itacônico não tenha alcançado o mesmo grau de intumescimento do gel de poliacrilato de sódio, os resultados foram bons, uma vez que houve grande absorção de solução pelo gel de ácido itacônico. Além disso, sua biodegradabilidade mostrou resultados fascinantes pela rapidez de degradação e formação de fungos nas amostras. Contudo, são necessários mais estudos, uma vez que a reprodutibilidade do grau de intumescimento do gel 12,5% não foi satisfatória em outros experimentos. Outro obstáculo encontrado no estudo foi a necessidade de se obter uma técnica melhor para a análise da cinética de intumescimento dos géis dos polímeros usados no estudo. A seleção de um polímero ou monômero ideal deve ser caracterizada pela superabsorção, alta cinética de intumescimento, baixo custo, curto tempo de manipulação, baixa toxicidade e biodegradabilidade. Embora as pesquisas sobre o ácido itacônico ainda se encontram em andamento, ele é considerado uma substância promissora para o futuro dos materiais biodegradáveis. / Introduction:Products made from non-biodegradable materials have brought a major problem for society. The easiness of the utilization and manipulation of disposable products leads to an increased consumption, and, consequently, damages to the environment. Besides, most of the discharged of these materials have no efficient treatment affecting the modern society. Materials such as diapers, sanitary napkins and dressings are examples of consumer goods which contain in their main structure sodium polyacrylate, a non-biodegradable superabsorbent polymer. Since 1980, sodium polyacrylate has become well known when disposable diapers began to be marketed. Nowadays, superabsorbent components mainly diapers are consumed in large scale reaching about 18 billion diapers consumed every year only in the U.S. Due to the environmental impacts that sodium polyacrylate has generated, science has sought polymers that can replace sodium polyacrylate in its main features such as high swelling degree and swelling kinetics. Goal: In the ambit to develop materials that can replace sodium polyacrylate, this work focuses on a monomer that has in its molecule, the presence of carboxylic chain which is a highly hydrophilic part. Methodology: In this work it was searched the monomer of itaconic acid as a possible material to replace sodium polyacrylate. This monomer not only has hydrophilic structure in its molecule, but also is biodegradable. During the program, it was made analyses of swelling degree both in gel and in microgel forms. The morphology of its structure and the biodegradability were also studied. Concomitantly, it was made the standardization of sodium polyacrylate to be utilized as a comparative instrument assessing the high swelling degree, morphology and degradability. Itaconic acid hydrogels were analyzed and assessed and the outcomes compared with sodium polyacrylate. Results: Although the swelling degree of itaconic acid has not reached similar results to sodium polyacrylate, the results can still be considered good since the swelling degree of itaconic acid was high. Furthermore, its biodegradability showed excellent results due to the short time of degradation and fungus formation in all samples. However, more studies are necessary, inasmuch as the reproducibility of swelling degree of the itaconic acid 12.5% gel was not satisfactory enough in other experiments. Another obstacle encountered in the study has been the need for a more precise technique for the analysis of the swelling kinetics of the polymers used. The selection of an ideal polymer must present high swelling degree, high kinetics of swelling, low cost, short handling time, low toxicity and high biodegradability. Although the researches about the Itaconic acid have still been undertaken, it is considered a promising substance for the future of biodegradable material.

Introdução: Produtos confeccionados a partir de materiais não biodegradáveis têm trazido um grande problema para a sociedade nos dias de hoje. A facilidade de utilização e manipulação dos produtos descartáveis leva a um aumento do consumo, podendo gerar danos para o meio ambiente, quando não há forma eficiente para o tratamento do mesmo. Materiais como fraldas, absorventes e curativos são exemplos de bens de consumo que apresentam Poliacrilato de Sódio, o qual é um polímero superabsorvente não biodegradável, como o principal constituinte destes produtos. O Poliacrilato de Sódio tornou-se muito conhecido a partir da década de 80 quando as fraldas descartáveis começaram a ser comercializadas. Atualmente, são consumidas aproximadamente 18 bilhões de fraldas todos os anos, apenas nos Estados Unidos. Devido aos impactos ambientais que este composto tem gerado, a ciência tem buscado polímeros que possam substituir o Poliacrilato de Sódio nas suas principais características, como superabsorção e alta cinética de intumescimento. Objetivo: No âmbito de desenvolver materiais que possam substituí-lo, buscou-se, neste trabalho, um monômero que apresentasse, em sua molécula, a presença de cadeia carboxílica a qual é a parte altamente hidrofílica. Metodologia: Neste trabalho, foi explorado o monômero de ácido Itacônico como possível substituinte do Poliacrilato de Sódio. Esta substância, além de ser caracterizada pela presença de estruturas hidrofílicas, também é biodegradável. Foram feitas análises de grau de intumescimento do material tanto na forma de gel quanto na forma microgel. A morfologia e a biodegradabilidade do material também foram estudadas. Concomitantemente, foi realizada a padronização do Poliacrilato de sódio para que este fosse utilizado como instrumento comparativo para a avaliação do grau de intumescimento, morfologia e degradabilidade. Hidrogéis de ácido itacônico foram assim analisados e avaliados com o hidrogel de poliacrilato de sódio e os resultados comparados. Resultados: Embora o grau de intumescimento do gel de ácido itacônico não tenha alcançado o mesmo grau de intumescimento do gel de poliacrilato de sódio, os resultados foram bons, uma vez que houve grande absorção de solução pelo gel de ácido itacônico. Além disso, sua biodegradabilidade mostrou resultados fascinantes pela rapidez de degradação e formação de fungos nas amostras. Contudo, são necessários mais estudos, uma vez que a reprodutibilidade do grau de intumescimento do gel 12,5% não foi satisfatória em outros experimentos. Outro obstáculo encontrado no estudo foi a necessidade de se obter uma técnica melhor para a análise da cinética de intumescimento dos géis dos polímeros usados no estudo. A seleção de um polímero ou monômero ideal deve ser caracterizada pela superabsorção, alta cinética de intumescimento, baixo custo, curto tempo de manipulação, baixa toxicidade e biodegradabilidade. Embora as pesquisas sobre o ácido itacônico ainda se encontram em andamento, ele é considerado uma substância promissora para o futuro dos materiais biodegradáveis. / Introduction:Products made from non-biodegradable materials have brought a major problem for society. The easiness of the utilization and manipulation of disposable products leads to an increased consumption, and, consequently, damages to the environment. Besides, most of the discharged of these materials have no efficient treatment affecting the modern society. Materials such as diapers, sanitary napkins and dressings are examples of consumer goods which contain in their main structure sodium polyacrylate, a non-biodegradable superabsorbent polymer. Since 1980, sodium polyacrylate has become well known when disposable diapers began to be marketed. Nowadays, superabsorbent components mainly diapers are consumed in large scale reaching about 18 billion diapers consumed every year only in the U.S. Due to the environmental impacts that sodium polyacrylate has generated, science has sought polymers that can replace sodium polyacrylate in its main features such as high swelling degree and swelling kinetics. Goal: In the ambit to develop materials that can replace sodium polyacrylate, this work focuses on a monomer that has in its molecule, the presence of carboxylic chain which is a highly hydrophilic part. Methodology: In this work it was searched the monomer of itaconic acid as a possible material to replace sodium polyacrylate. This monomer not only has hydrophilic structure in its molecule, but also is biodegradable. During the program, it was made analyses of swelling degree both in gel and in microgel forms. The morphology of its structure and the biodegradability were also studied. Concomitantly, it was made the standardization of sodium polyacrylate to be utilized as a comparative instrument assessing the high swelling degree, morphology and degradability. Itaconic acid hydrogels were analyzed and assessed and the outcomes compared with sodium polyacrylate. Results: Although the swelling degree of itaconic acid has not reached similar results to sodium polyacrylate, the results can still be considered good since the swelling degree of itaconic acid was high. Furthermore, its biodegradability showed excellent results due to the short time of degradation and fungus formation in all samples. However, more studies are necessary, inasmuch as the reproducibility of swelling degree of the itaconic acid 12.5% gel was not satisfactory enough in other experiments. Another obstacle encountered in the study has been the need for a more precise technique for the analysis of the swelling kinetics of the polymers used. The selection of an ideal polymer must present high swelling degree, high kinetics of swelling, low cost, short handling time, low toxicity and high biodegradability. Although the researches about the Itaconic acid have still been undertaken, it is considered a promising substance for the future of biodegradable material.

Production of xylanase and itaconic acid (IA) from Aspergillus terreus NRRL 1960 from agricultural residues was investigated in this study. Two different media were tested and the medium having itaconic acid inducing capacity was chosen for further studies due to its high xylanase and IA production capacity. The best xylan concentration was found as 2% (w/v). Addition of commercial xylanase to production culture resulted in higher initial simple sugar concentration which increased IA production slightly but decreased xylanase production. Among tested agricultural residues / corn cob, cotton stalk and sunflower stalk, the highest xylanase production was obtained on corn cob. Increasing the corn cob concentration and applying wet heat pretreatment increased the xylanase production level. In a two-step fermentation process, 70000 IU/L xylanase production was achieved in a medium containing 7% wet heat treated corn cob followed by 17 g/L IA production in a medium containing 10% glucose. Molecular weight and isoelectric point of xylanase were found as 19 kDa and pH 9.0, respectively. The enzyme was optimally active at 50&deg / C and pH 6.5-7.0. Kinetic experiments at 50&deg / C and pH 7.0 resulted in apparent Km and Vmax values of 2.5&plusmn / 0.05 mg xylan/mL and 50.2&plusmn / 0.4 IU/&micro / g protein, respectively. The major products of birchwood xylan hydrolysis were determined by thin layer chromatography as xylobiose and xylotriose. These findings indicate that the enzyme could be advantageous for use in different industrial applications due to its low molecular weight and its potential use for xylooligosaccharide production.

The overall goal of this research was to explore new living radical polymerization methods and the blending of renewable polymers. Towards this latter goal, polylactic acid (PLA) was blended with a new renewable polymer, poly(trimethylene-malonate) (PTM), with the aim of improving mechanical properties, imparting faster degradation, and examining the relationship between degradation and mechanical properties. Blend films of PLA and PTM with various ratios (5, 10, and 20 wt %) were cast from chloroform. Partially miscible blends exhibited Young’s modulus and elongation-to-break values that significantly extend PLA’s usefulness. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) data showed that incorporation of 10 wt% PTM into PLA matrix exhibited a Young’s modulus of 4.61 GPa, which is significantly higher than that of neat PLA (1.69 GPa). The second part of the bioplastics study involved a one-week hydrolytic degradation study of PTM and another new bioplastic, poly(trimethylene itaconate) (PTI) using DI water (pH 5.4) at room temperature, and the effects of degradation on crystallinity and mechanical properties of these films were examined by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and AFM. PTI showed an increase in crystallinity with degradation, which was attributed to predominately degradation of free amorphous regions. Depending on the crystallinity, the elastic modulus increased at first, and decreased slightly. Both bulk and surface-tethered stimuli-responsive polymers were studied on amine functionalized magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles. Stimuli-responsive polymers studied, including poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM), poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA), and poly(itaconic acid) (PIA), were grafted via surface-initiated aqueous atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP). Both Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectroscopies showed the progression of the grafting. The change in particle size as a function of temperature was measured using dynamic light scattering (DLS). Once the PIA was grafted from the Fe3O4 nanoparticles for 13 h, the PIA thickness was around 13 nm. After the PNIPAM was grafted for 6 h, the stimuli-responsive nanocomposites with a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of 32 °C exhibited a particle size of 236 nm. Moreover, a variety of stimuli-responsive bulk block copolymers were synthesized. The stimuli-responsive nanocomposites could be good candidates as drug carriers for the targeted and controllable drug delivery.

Dans un contexte du développement durable, la bioproduction de synthons (molécules plateformes, ou building blocks) de façon biosourcée à partir de biomasse végétale, constitue une voie de remplacement des actuelles molécules prétrosourcées. Ce travail de thèse concerne spécifiquement l’utilisation de la biomasse lignocellulosique, renouvelable et abondante, pour la production de deux acides organiques d’intérêt : l’acide itaconique et l’acide fumarique. Ces molécules ont été choisies notamment car elles peuvent générer des polymères aux propriétés intéressantes. Les travaux expérimentaux ont consisté à utiliser le son de blé et les rafles de maïs, déchets agricoles, comme substrats pour la fermentation de quatre souches de champignons filamenteux du genre Aspergillus. Des criblages des meilleures conditions fermentaires montrent que les rafles de maïs permettent d’atteindre des rendements plus élevés, surtout en fermentation en milieu solide. Parmi d’autres résultats marquants, nous avons montré pour la première fois la capacité d’Aspergillus oryzae à produire l’acide itaconique. L’ensemble de nos résultats montrent que l’utilisation de la biomasse lignocellulosique est une alternative prometteuse pour la production de ces deux synthons d’intérêt industriel. / In the context of sustainable development, the bioproduction of building blocks (chemical platforms) from biomass is way to substitute the current fossil-based chemical molecules. This thesis is focused on the use of lignocellulosic biomass, renewable and abundant, towards the production of two organic acids (potential building blocks): itaconic acid and fumaric acid. These molecules have been chosen especially because they can generated polymers with interesting properties. The experimental work consisted in using wheat bran and corn cobs, agricultural wastes, as substrates for fermentation by four strains of filamentous fungi from Aspergillus genus. Screenings of the best fermentation conditions show that enzymatically pretreated corn cobs, especially in solid state fermentation achieve higher yields, especially in solid state fermentation. Among other notable results, we have shown for the first time the ability of Aspergillus oryzae to produce itaconic acid. Overall, our results show that the use of lignocellulosic biomass is a promising alternative for the production of these two building blocks of industrial interest.

Depuis quelques années, un des défis de la Recherche est de valoriser les co-produits agro-industriels. Une des voies permettant la valorisation de ces « déchets » est la fermentation en milieu solide.Le but de ce travail est de produire de l'acide itaconique par des souches d'Aspergilli (Aspergillus itaconicus et Aspergillus terreus) à partir de ressources renouvelables. Le substrat choisi dans cette étude est le son de blé, coproduit largement disponible en Champagne-Ardenne.L'acide itaconique a été classé dans le TOP 12 des molécules plateformes par le Department Of Energy Américain. Ces molécules plateformes peuvent être produites à partir de biomasse ligno-cellulosique et peuvent être utilisées à la place de molécules d'origine pétrochimique.Dans notre étude, nous n'avons pas mis en évidence de production d'acide itaconique par la souche Aspergillus terreus NRRL 1960 mais nous avons observé, pour la première fois, la production d'acide fumarique par fermentation en milieu solide. L'acide fumarique est tout aussi intéressant que l'acide itaconique puisqu'il fait également partie du TOP 12 des molécules plateformes. La production maximale obtenue est de 0,44 mg/g de matière sèche par fermentation en milieu solide sur son de blé humidifié à 70% et à pH 3, après 5 jours d'incubation à 30°C.De plus, nous avons montré qu'Aspergillus itaconicus NRRL 161 est capable de produire 6,77 mg d'acide itaconique/g de matière sèche par fermentation en milieu solide sur son de blé humidifié à 60% par une solution de saccharose à 400 g/L et à pH 3, après 4 jours d'incubation à 30°C.Dans une dernière partie, nous avons mis en évidence, chez Aspergillus itaconicus NRRL 161, la présence potentielle du gène codant pour la Cis-Aconitic acid Decarboxylase, enzyme clé dans la production d'acide itaconique. / Since a few years, one of research's challenges is to valorise agro-industrial by-products. One of the ways permitting the valorisation of these “wastes” is solid-state fermentation.The aim of this work is to produce itaconic acid with Aspergilli (Aspergillus itaconicus and Aspergillus terreus) strains from renewable resources. The chosen substrate in this study is wheat bran, by-product widely available in Champagne-Ardenne.Itaconic acid is classified among the TOP 12 of building blocks by the American Department Of Energy. Building blocks can be produced from ligno-cellulosic biomass and can be used instead of petrochemical-based molecules.In our study, we have not highlighted itaconic acid production by Aspergillus terreus NRRL 1960, but we have observed fumaric acid production by solid state fermentation. Fumaric acid is as interesting as itaconic acid since it also belongs to the TOP 12 of building blocks. Maximal production of fumaric acid is 0.44 mg/g dry matter by solid-state fermentation on wheat bran moistened at 70% and at pH 3, after 5 days of incubation at 30°C.Furthermore, we have shown that Aspergillus itaconicus NRRL 161 is able to produce 6.77 mg of itaconic acid/g dry matter by solid state fermentation on wheat bran moistened at 60% with sucrose solution at 400 g/L and at pH 3, after 4 days of incubation at 30°C.In a last part, we have highlighted, in Aspergillus itaconicus NRRL 161, the potential presence of the Cis-Aconitic acid Decarboxylase encoding gene, key enzyme in itaconic acid production.

Die hier vorgestellte Studie untersucht systematisch die angeborene Immunabwehr gegen L. pneumophila auf Ebene des gesamten Wirtsorganismus, sowie auf molekularer Ebene in Alveolar- und Knochenmarksmakrophagen. Mittels in vivo Transkriptomanalysen werden Typ I und II Interferone (IFN) als Hauptregulatoren der frühen pulmonalen Genexpression in der L. pneumophila-Infektion identifiziert. Infektionsexperimente in Wildtyp- und IFN-Rezeptor-defizienten Tieren offenbaren, dass Typ I und II IFNe maßgeblich die antibakterielle Abwehr gegen L. pneumophila vermitteln. Für die Bekämpfung der Infektion in der Lunge werden CD11c+ Zellen als wichtigste Empfänger der IFN-Signale identifiziert. Des Weiteren wird durch Behandlung von CD11c+ Alveolarmakrophagen mit IFNen ex vivo das intrazelluläre bakterielle Wachstum inhibiert. Mittels subzellulärer quantitativer Massenspektrometrie wird gezeigt, dass die Proteinkomposition der Legionellen-enthaltenden Vakuole substanziell durch beide IFNe modifiziert wird. In einer vergleichenden Netzwerkanalyse werden diese Proteomdaten mit eigenen und öffentlich zugänglichen Transkriptomdaten verglichen. Hierdurch können klar abgegrenzte Untergruppen von einerseits transkriptionell durch IFN-regulierten Proteinen sowie andererseits ausschließlich räumlich IFN-regulierten Proteinen unterschieden werden. Unter den durch IFN an der Vakuole angereicherten Proteinen wird Immunoresponsive gene 1 (IRG1) als zentraler Effektor identifiziert, welcher das Wachstum von L. pneumophila durch die Produktion des antibakteriellen Metaboliten Itaconsäure inhibiert. Zusammenfassend stellt diese Studie eine umfassende Ressource von IFN-vermittelten Effekten auf die Genexpression sowie auf das Proteom der bakteriellen Vakuole dar und deckt einen zellautonomen Abwehrmechanismus gegen L. pneumophila auf, welcher durch die IRG1-abhängige Produktion von Itaconsäure vermittelt wird. / The study presented here systemically examines the innate immune response against L. pneumophila on whole organism level as well as on a molecular level within macrophages, L. pneumophilas’ host cell. In vivo transcriptome analyses identify type I and II interferons (IFNs) as master regulators of the early pulmonary gene expression during L. pneumophila infection. Infection experiments in wild-type mice and mice lacking type I and/or II IFN signaling reveal a severe defect of antibacterial defense when IFN signaling is absent. CD11c+ cells were found to be the main targets of IFNs to restrict infection in the lung, and IFNs inhibited bacterial growth in CD11c+ alveolar macrophages ex vivo. Subcellular quantitative mass spectrometry shows that both IFNs substantially modify the protein composition of Legionella-containing vacuoles. Comparative network analysis, combining these proteome data with transcriptome data as well as public database data reveals distinct subsets of transcriptionally regulated IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) on the one hand, but interestingly also exclusively spatially IFN-regulated vacuolar proteins. Among IFN-regulated vacuolar proteins, Immunoresponsive gene 1 (IRG1) was identified as a central effector that restricts growth of L. pneumophila through production of the antibacterial metabolite itaconic acid in macrophages. Collectively, this study provides a comprehensive resource of IFN-mediated effects on gene expression and the bacterial vacuolar proteome, and uncovers a cell-autonomous defense pathway against L. pneumophila, which is mediated by IFNs, IRG1 and itaconic acid.