Richmond, Virginia is defined by our connection to the James River. The James River Park system stretches over 550 acres of natural beauty. The park is broken into 14 different sections from the Huguenot Bridge in the west to a half mile beyond the I-95 Bridge in the east. The James River includes water features that appeal to the young and curious to the most experienced river-adventurer. The James River Park System boasts idyllic shorelines, peaceful meadows, and miles of challenging hiking and biking trails that appeal to the community and guests alike. Every year thousands of people come to Richmond for activities and events like the XTerra Races, Dominion RiverRock, the Folk Festival and many more. Amazingly, at this time, there are no convenient downtown or riverfront facilities to allow locals and guests of Richmond to interact with the James River Park system. With use of the Pattern Building at Tredegar Iron Works, this project will combine the ideas of biophilia, and eco-tourism to design a boutique hotel that will cater to outdoor enthusiasts. In addition to guest suites, this boutique hotel will offer an outdoor recreation rental, retail and repair facility that will offer bikes, kayaks, tubes, paddle-boards, climbing equipment and other essentials for outdoor exploration. A small cafe will offer healthy, locally sourced, farm to table snack and drink options. Both indoor and outdoor seating areas and/or lounges will be available for relaxation. The outdoor patio will feature an interactive garden and give guests a place to enjoy scenic views, practice yoga, meditate and relax. In addition this space could be rented to host special events. The term Biophilia was first used by a German-born American psychoanalyst Erich Fromm in The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (1973), which described the term as “the passionate love of life and of all that is alive”. Later the term was used by American biologist Edward O. Wilson in his work Biophilia (1984), that proposed that humans tendency to focus and affiliate with nature and other life-forms has a genetic basis. Humans biologically gravitate toward the rich and diverse shapes, colors and life that exists in the natural world. As we are drawn to the natural world, we also benefit from it. Nature nurtures us and has a positive effect on our health, well-being and happiness. Research led by Yoshifumi Miyazaki at Chiba University sent 84 subjects to stroll in seven different forests, while the same number of people walked city centers. Overall, those who spent time in the forest, showed a 16% decrease in the stress hormone cortisol, a 2% drop in blood pressure, and a 4% drop in heart rate. Although we spend nearly 90% of our lives indoors, those interior environments often do not reflect the characteristics of nature, trigger a positive emotional response, and are not often designed in a sustainable manner. Too often, our surroundings are designed in a way that deteriorate the environment and separate us from the natural world. The built environment of this project will emphasize the human need for contact with nature that is good for physical, emotional and physiological benefit and satisfaction. While Eco-Tourism is not a new concept the popularity of Eco-tourism increased in the 1980’s when large scale educational efforts by the government touted the benefits of conserving and protecting the environment and planet. Eco-Tourism is a piece of the “Green Movement” (scientific, social and political movement addressing environmental issues) but since there has been an increase in information about how people are negatively impacting the planet. The travel industry has been considered a strong influence and a demand for green hotels, restaurants and transportation is on the rise. Eco-Tourism is defined as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education”. Tourism often comes with its footprint on the environment. Tourism and hospitality must be sustainable. How can we still enjoy the natural wonders of the world yet minimize our impact? By exploring the concepts of Eco-tourism this project will reflect a positive environment and educate visitors on how to make their own changes. Guests will be encouraged to interact with the natural wonders of Richmond in a low impact manner, so that it may remain for others to enjoy. Research begins by understanding terms like sustainability, Eco-tourism and biophilic design and continues by researching and experiencing examples of them. By studying cases like Frank Lloyd Wrights project “Falling Water” and Mies van der Rohe’s project “Farnworth House,” understanding of a unique connection to the organic environment can occur. By studying Swedish architects Martin Videgard and Bolle Thams project “Tree Hotel” ways to incorporate travel with nature will be discovered. Finally by studying Agence Ter’s project the “Pudong Left Bank” in Shanghai inspiration on how to encourage a city to interact with its natural environment will occur. The goal of this project is to understand the relationship between human and nature and how it can be controlled and how we can benefit from an Interior Environment.

Investigating linkages between the compositions of suspended (seston) and benthic particulate matter is important to the understanding of organic matter (OM) cycling and nutrient retention in aquatic systems. We compared the quantity and quality of the truly suspended (TS) and settleable (SB) fractions of seston as well as benthic particulate matter in the tidal freshwater James River, Virginia. The mass of seston and OM was consistently higher in the TS fraction compared to the SB fraction. OM was preferentially retained in the TS fraction relative to seston. The proportional contribution of OM constituents (chlorophyll a, particulate organic carbon and nitrogen) to the two fractions was consistent across observed concentrations whereas increases in seston concentration resulted in decreased proportions in the TS fraction. Benthic constituent reservoirs were large relative to the SB fraction but the higher proportion of OM in the SB fraction suggests that the settleable material was more labile.

Benthic macroinvertebrate diversity influences stream food web dynamics, nutrient cycling and material exchange between the benthos and the water column. Stream bioassessment has moved to the forefront of water quality monitoring in terms of benthic macroinvertebrate diversity in the recent past. The objectives of this study were to determine optimum subsample size and level of taxonomic resolution necessary to accurately and precisely describe macroinvertebrate diversity in streams flowing in the Piedmont province of the James River watershed in Virginia. Forty-nine sampling sites were selected from streams within the Piedmont Physiographic Province of the James River watershed. Ten sites were randomly selected to have all macroinvertebrates in the sample identified to the genus level whenever possible. Optimum subsampling intensities and Virginia Stream Condition Index (VSCI) metrics and scores were determined. For samples with the total number of individuals at less than 500, the genus level of taxonomy provided lower overall optimum subsampling intensities. However, for samples with total individuals over 1000, optimum subsampling intensities at the genus level of taxonomy were higher than the family level for more than 50% of the metrics. For both family and genus levels of taxonomy, the majority of optimum subsampling intensities were well over 50% of the total individuals in the sample, with some as high as 100% of the individuals. While optimum subsampling intensities were valuable in comparing family and genus level taxonomy, they are not reasonable for stream bioassessment protocols; the cost:benefit ratio would be highly unbalanced. A minimum subsample size of 200 individuals is optimum for determining VSCI scores, while optimum taxonomic resolution is dependent on several factors. Thus, the level of taxonomic resolution for a particular study should be determined by the study objectives, level of site impairment and sample size.

It began with the desire to create a SPA that emanates perfect harmonic balance through architecture. What architectural solutions would synchronize the spiritual, mental, and physical elements of the SPA? The answers lie in the meaning of the term 'SPA'.SPA popularity has increased due to the population's craving for healthier lifestyles. Heightened awareness of the afflictions caused by poor health has led people to seek out the benefits of a positive physical and mental environment.Many commercial spas are designed to meet only physical needs and disregard important spiritual and mental factors that contribute to wellness of mind, body and spirit.The spiritual SPA integrates inner awareness and consciousness with the natural surroundings and addresses the relationship between interior architecture and SPA users. A peaceful atmosphere is created to aid in the development of inner awareness.Water plays an important role. The project is developed around water and emphasizes water as a symbol of tranquility. The spiritual SPA provides comprehensive services and physical wellness in a environment that enhances the complimentary therapies and treatments.

A 12-month study (January to December 2015) focused on the effects of tidal forcing on nutrient fluxes in the tidal, freshwater segment of the James River Estuary (JRE). Discrete sampling of nutrient chemistry and continuous monitoring of tidal discharge were used to determine the volume and timing of the tides, and differences in nutrient concentrations between incoming and outgoing tides. The goal of this study was to improve understanding of tidal influence on nutrient fluxes and their role in nutrient transport to the lower estuary. Results suggested that differences in nutrient concentrations between incoming and outgoing tides were small throughout the year. This finding suggests that nutrient fluxes at the study site, near the tidal fresh-oligohaline boundary of the James, are largely determined by tidal volume owing to weak concentrations gradients. Changes in water quality during seaward and landward tidal excursions into deeper versus shallower segments were analyzed to infer biogeochemical processes. Differences in oxygen production and nitrate utilization suggest greater autotrophy during landward excursions, consistent with more favorable light conditions. This work was conducted as a collaborative effort between Virginia Commonwealth University, the USGS, Randolph-Macon College, and Washington and Lee University participating in the “Mountains to the Sea” project.

Antibiotic resistance is a major threat to human health. Clinical situations are the main focus for antibiotic resistance research, but understanding the spread of resistance in the environment is also vital. A major contributor to this spread is wastewater from combined sewer overflow (CSO) events. The effect of CSO events on antibiotic resistance in the James River near Richmond, Virginia was studied using genomic and microbiological approaches. The abundance of genes associated with resistance to quinolones (qnrA) and tetracycline (tetW) was strongly correlated with the presence of fecal indicator bacteria (E. coli abundance) as well as total nitrogen and phosphorus loads, which suggests an anthropogenic source of these genes. Abundance of the blaTEM gene, which confers resistance to β-lactam antibiotics, was elevated during CSO events and increased with precipitation and river discharge. Bacteria isolated during a CSO event were resistant to more antibiotics and had higher multi-drug resistance when compared to isolates from a non-event. This study demonstrated that CSO events are contributing to the spread of antibiotic resistance.

Diel dissolved oxygen (DO) data were used to characterize seasonal, inter-annual, and longitudinal variation in production and respiration for the James River Estuary. Two computational methods (Bayesian and bookkeeping) were applied to these data to determine whether inferences regarding DO metabolism are sensitive to methodology. Net metabolism was sensitive to methodology as Bayesian results indicated net heterotrophy (production < respiration) while bookkeeping results indicated net autotrophy (production > respiration). Differences in net metabolism among the methods was due to low seasonal variation in respiration using the Bayesian method, whereas bookkeeping results showed a strong correlation between production and respiration. Bayesian results suggest a dependence on allochthonous organic matter (OM) whereas bookkeeping results suggest that metabolism is dependent on autochthonous OM. This study highlights the importance in considering the method used to derive metabolic estimates as it can impact the assessment of trophic status and sources of OM supporting an estuary.

Mark-recapture studies sample unevenly over distance and generate biased or distance-weighted movement data, where short distances are sampled more frequently than long distances. I examined how study design affects the degree of distance-weighted sampling and observed movement distributions of stream fish. A modeling study illustrated how distance-weighting increases with the number of mark sites and decreases with the length of stream sampled during recapture. Sub-sampled empirical data sets indicated that longer movements can be detected by increasing the length of the recapture section and that a substantial proportion of fish may move long distances outside of study areas. I also examined factors that were associated with movement in a network of streams. The probability of emigrating from a site was positively related to intermittency and body size and negatively related to distance from the mainstem creek and habitat complexity. Movement rates, measured as the number of fish moving upstream through a trap per day, were positively related to increases in flow, daylength, and water temperature. Distance moved was greater for fish that were initially marked within intermittent reaches. Overall, some species moved in association with several of these factors but others did not respond to any factors. Finally, I identified species-level attributes that were associated with colonization rates after experimental defaunation. Movement rate and abundance explained the most interspecific variation in colonization rates when compared to competing predictors (spatial distribution, body size, and family). Recovery occurred slowly and several species had not restored more than half of their pre-defaunation abundance within a year. Despite slow recovery for some species, defaunation had only a short-term (i.e., < 3 months) effect on relative abundance patterns. This study has important implications for conservation. Improvements in study design will allow detection of longer movements that may be a key component of species invasions, demographic rescue, and colonization. Species that move in association with multiple factors may be better colonists than species that do not. Finally, species that are rare and less-mobile will recover their populations slowly and will be vulnerable to extirpation in systems impacted by frequent pulse disturbances. / Ph. D.

Campostoma anomalum roanokense, a new subspecies of C. anomalum in the James and Roanoke Rivers of Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina is compared to C. a. kanawhanum, the most closely related form, and to other similar forms. Three races of C. a. roanokense: a. South Fork Roanoke River Race, b. North Fork Roanoke River Race, and c. James River Race, are described and their relationships discussed. A Roanoke River endemic (Notropis cerasinus) taken from the New River drainage and the interrelationships of the three races of C. a. roanokense may indicate a more recent contact between the New and South Fork of the Roanoke River watersheds than has taken place between the New and the James River watersheds. / Master of Science

Contextually, each program has a set of inherent issues, stemming from physical, social and historical conditions. This context can be helpful, if not essential, in developing the architectural questions that lead to a concept. To establish an autonomous existence as an architectural place. The James River Nature Center provided a complex program that allowed for the exploration of context and concept as a thesis. / Master of Architecture