L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier la croissance et le développement du manguier (Mangifera indica L.) en lien avec un facteur exogène, la température, et plusieurs facteurs endogènes architecturaux de type structurel (topologie) et temporel. Les études sont menées à l'échelle de l'organe (l'axe végétatif, ses feuilles et l'axe florifère) et de la succession des axes (végétatifs ou florifères) sur plusieurs cycles de croissance. À la première échelle, l'étude met en évidence une relation allométrique négative entre la vitesse relative de croissance, positivement reliée à la température, et la durée de croissance de l'organe. Cette relation est commune entre les trois organes et les deux cultivars étudiés. Par ailleurs, des modèles de segmentation montrent que les stades phénologiques classiquement admis sont caractérisés par des vitesses absolues de croissance contrastées. Cette approche met en évidence des asynchronismes entre l'axe végétatif et ses feuilles. À la seconde échelle, l'effet des facteurs architecturaux sur le développement est analysé pour quatre cultivars. Nos résultats montrent de fortes interactions entre certains facteurs structurels (ex. position de l'axe, apicale vs. latérale) ou temporels (ex. date d'apparition), et des caractéristiques développementales qualitatives (ex. occurrence de la floraison), quantitatives (ex. nombre d'inflorescences) ou temporelles (ex. date de floraison). Ces résultats font ressortir une « mémoire de l'effet architectural » qui se propage d'un cycle de croissance aux suivants. Nos études multi-échelles permettent de quantifier les parts respectives des facteurs endogènes et exogènes contribuant aux variations phénotypiques (incluant la plasticité) du manguier. / The aim of this work is to study mango (Mangifera indica L.) growth and development in relation to an exogenous factor, temperature, and to endogenous factors, whether structural (topology) or temporal. The study is carried out at two scales: the organ (vegetative axis, its leaves, and reproductive axis) and the succession of axes (vegetative or reproductive). At the first scale, there was a common negative allometric relationship between the relative growth rate, positively related to temperature, and the duration of growth of the organ. This relationship is common between the three organs and the two studied cultivars. Otherwise, segmentation models reveal that the phenological stages classically studied are characterized by contrasted values of absolute growth rate. This approach shows asynchronisms between the axis and its leaves. At the second scale, the effect of endogenous factors on mango development is investigated for four cultivars. Our results reveal strong interplays between some structural (e.g. axis position, apical vs. lateral) or temporal (e.g. date of burst) factors, and qualitative (e.g. occurrence of flowering), quantitative (e.g. number of inflorescences) or temporal (e.g. date of flowering) developmental traits. These results highlight a “memory of the architectural effect” which spreads from one growing cycle to the followings. Our multiscale study enables to quantify the respective contributions of endogenous and exogenous factors to the phenotypic variations (including plasticity) of mango.

Un examen des relations basicrânio-faciales et leurs variations au cours de l'ontogenèse est réalisé chez l'homme moderne. L'étude de la « typologie » faciale sagittale (classe squelettique) est envisagée en relation avec la configuration de la base du crâne. L'objectif est d'établir un modèle de développement basicrânio-facial conduisant aux différentes typologies faciales de l'homme actuel. - Une première étude bidimensionnelle a pour but de définir les variables de la base du crâne caractéristiques des relations faciales dans les dysmorphoses sagittales extrêmes. Ces résultats soulignent le lien entre flexion de la base du crâne, sa région postérieure et le décalage antéro- postérieur de la face. - Une seconde étude sur scanners Rx s'attache aux interactions entre la dimension transversale et sagittale. Elle confirme l'importance du positionnement antéro-postérieur des structures basicrâniennes dans la conformation faciale sagittale. Elle révèle peu de liens entre la dimension transversale de la base du crâne et les prognathismes maxillaire et mandibulaire, mais souligne l'influence de l'orientation des pyramides pétreuses, de l'écartement des processus ptérygoïdiens et de la flexion sphénoïdale. - Une troisième étude longitudinale analyse l’évolution des variables mises en évidence selon l'âge et le stade d'évolution dentaire pour chaque classe squelettique. Les paramètres basicrâniens ne sont pas prédéfinis à la naissance, ceux décrivant la flexion et la région postérieure de la base du crâne deviennent caractéristiques plus tardivement. Les stades occlusion de la denture temporaire et évolution de la première molaire permanente sont des évènements clés dans le lien entre la base du crâne et le type facial. Un modèle de développement basicrânio-facial est proposé à partir des trois conformations crânio-faciales dégagées (dysmorphoses squelettiques). Des perspectives en anthropologie des populations anciennes et actuelles sont proposées. / Basicranio-facial relationships and their variations during ontogenesis are studied on the modern human. The study of the sagittal facial typology (skeletal class) has been realized in relation with the cranial base shape. The aim was to establish a model of the basicranio-facial development leading to the different facial typologies of modern human. - A first two-dimensional study aims to define the variables of the cranial base caracteristical of the facial relations in the extreme sagittal dysmorphoses. The results show the link between the flexion of the cranial base, its posterior region and the facial antero-posterior discrepancy. - A second study on X-ray scanners looks into the interactions between the transverse and sagittal dimension. The results suggest the importance of the antero-posterior positioning of the cranial structures in sagittal facial shape. This study reveals few relationships between the basicranial transverse dimension and maxillary, mandibular prognathism, but shows the influence of the petrous pyramids orientation, the distance between pterygoid processes and the cranial base angle flexion. - A third longitudinal study analyzes the evolution of the variables observed in relation with the age and the stage of dental evolution for each skeletal class. The basicranial parameters are not predetermined at birth, those describing flexion and the posterior region of the cranial base become characteristic later on. The stages of the deciduous occlusion denture and of the first permanent molar evolution are key events for the link between cranial base and facial type. Based on the three craniofacial shapes described (skeletal dysmorphoses) a basicranio-facial development model is proposed. Perspectives in ancient and modern population anthropology are suggested.

Cheang Chi-chiu. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 126-136). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Abstract --- p.i / Acknowledgements --- p.vi / Contents --- p.viii / List of Tables --- p.xi / List of Figures --- p.xiii / Chapter CHAPTER 1: --- Introduction and Background --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Ecology and distribution of the genus Sargassum --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Classical taxonomy of the genus Sargassum and associated problems --- p.2 / Chapter 1.3 --- Recent approaches on taxonomic studies of Sargassum --- p.4 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- Morphological studies --- p.4 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- Genetic studies --- p.5 / Chapter 1.3.3 --- Integration of genetic and morphological studies --- p.7 / Chapter 1.4 --- Phylogeographic distribution and population dispersal --- p.8 / Chapter 1.5 --- Description of species --- p.11 / Chapter 1.6 --- Objectives --- p.14 / Chapter 1.7 --- Layout of the thesis --- p.15 / Chapter CHAPTER 2: --- Morphological Examination on Sargassum hemiphyllum --- p.17 / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.17 / Chapter 2.2 --- Methodology --- p.18 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Sampling locations and treatment of specimens --- p.18 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Morphological measurement --- p.22 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Data analysis and statistical tests --- p.28 / Chapter 2.3 --- Results --- p.31 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Choosing parameters from preliminary results --- p.31 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Analysis on the main data set --- p.40 / Chapter 2.3.2.1 --- Layout of the data set --- p.40 / Chapter 2.3.2.2 --- Spatially conservable vs. variable parameters --- p.51 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Conservable morphological parameters- consensus of specimens --- p.58 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Variable morphological parameters- variation among specimens based on categorical parameters --- p.58 / Chapter 2.3.5 --- Differentiation of populations based on measurable and numerical parameters --- p.63 / Chapter 2.4 --- Discussion --- p.74 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Temporal vs. spatial variation in the morphology of Sargassum hemiphyllum --- p.74 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Spatially conservable characters for the taxonomic identification of Sargassum hemiphyllum --- p.77 / Chapter 2.4.3 --- Variation within Sargassum hemiphyllum --- p.77 / Chapter 2.4.4 --- Variation along the biogeographical gradient --- p.79 / Chapter CHAPTER 3: --- Genetic Analysis of RbcL-S Spacer in Sargassum hemiphyllum --- p.82 / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.82 / Chapter 3.2 --- Methodology --- p.87 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Extraction and purification of DNA --- p.87 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gel electrophoresis --- p.87 / Chapter 3.2.3 --- Purification of PCR product --- p.90 / Chapter 3.2.4 --- DNA sequencing --- p.90 / Chapter 3.2.5 --- RFLP study --- p.92 / Chapter 3.2.6 --- Sequence alignment and analysis --- p.92 / Chapter 3.3 --- Results --- p.93 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Extraction and PCR amplification --- p.93 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Pilot study --- p.97 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- RFLP study --- p.103 / Chapter 3.4 --- Discussion --- p.108 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Suitability of RbcL-S spacer as genetic marker at population level --- p.108 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Two clades vs. two varieties of S. hemiphyllum --- p.109 / Chapter 3.4.3 --- Reproductive barrier --- p.110 / Chapter CHAPTER 4: --- General Discussion --- p.113 / Chapter 4.1 --- Morphological and genetic data- consistence or conflict --- p.113 / Chapter 4.2 --- Latitudinal gradient of seawater temperature in the Pacific NW --- p.115 / Chapter 4.3 --- Fluctuation in seawater salinity in the Pacific NW --- p.118 / Chapter 4.4 --- Possible initiation of speciation --- p.122 / Chapter 4.5 --- Works to be done in the future --- p.123 / References --- p.126

Orientador: Virgínia Sanches Uieda / Resumo: A remoção da vegetação ripária pode ser uma importante causa de redução da diversidade e alterações na distribuição de invertebrados bentônicos ao longo do curso de riachos. O presente trabalho foi realizado em trechos de terceira ordem de dois riachos, um trecho com mata ripária (fechado) e outro sem (aberto) em cada riacho, e em dois meses da estação seca de dois anos consecutivos, a fim de verificar possíveis alterações espaciais e temporais na estrutura da fauna de invertebrados bentônicos. Também foram coletados dados de 12 variáveis ambientais e analisados junto com a abundância da fauna com o objetivo de verificar a interação entre estes dois grupos de dados na diferenciação entre as quatro amostras realizadas (dois trechos e dois anos, por riacho). A manutenção ou retirada da vegetação ripária não atuou isoladamente sobre a estrutura da fauna de invertebrados bentônicos, a qual foi também influenciada pela posição (montante ou jusante) do trecho fechado e por características estruturais próprias de cada trecho estudado, como presença de intervenções antrópicas nas proximidades (açudes) e tipo de substrato do leito. No riacho que apresenta o trecho fechado a montante, a mata contribui com matéria orgânica em suspensão e detritos vegetais para o trecho aberto a jusante, aumentando a oferta de abrigo e alimento para a fauna, diversificada e abundante nos dois trechos. Por outro lado, a grande quantidade de macrófitas no trecho aberto, localizado a montante no outro riach... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Removal of riparian vegetation can be an important cause of reduced diversity and changes in the distribution of benthic invertebrates along streams. The present work was carried out in third order stretches of two streams, one stretch with riparian (closed) and one without (open) forest in each stream, and in two months of the dry season of two consecutive years, in order to verify possible changes Spatial and temporal changes in the fauna structure of benthic invertebrates. Data were also collected from 12 environmental variables and analyzed together with the abundance of the fauna, in order to verify the interaction between these two data groups in the differentiation between the four samples (two stretches and two years, by stream). The maintenance or removal of riparian vegetation did not act alone on the structure of the benthic invertebrate fauna, which was also influenced by the position (upstream or downstream) of the closed section and by the structural characteristics of each section studied, such as the presence of anthropic Proximities (weirs) and type of substrate of the bed. In the creek that presents the enclosed stretch upstream, the forest contributes with organic matter in suspension and vegetal debris for the open stretch downstream, increasing the offer of shelter and food for the fauna, diversified and abundant in both stretches. On the other hand, the large amount of macrophytes in the open section, located upstream in the other stream, provides a hete... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

The subject of this thesis is the French language in the Franco-Belgian borderland. More specifically, it investigates language, linguistic perceptions and language attitudes in the French-speaking part of Belgium which borders France. The study takes a variationist approach and is grounded in sociolinguistic theory, but it also draws on theories and methodologies from elsewhere in the social sciences. Two questions are at the heart of this study: how do people speak French in the Belgian borderland and why do they speak that way? To answer the research questions, speech and questionnaire data were gathered from 39 informants living in the borderland city of Tournai and its surrounding area. With this data, a variety of analyses were performed. Sociophonetic investigations were carried out on two phonological variables, namely the vocalic oppositions /e/-/ɛ/ and /o/-/ɔ/, draw-a-map task perceptual data were analysed through a ‘visual methods’ lens, and attitudinal data were also examined. Social variation in linguistic behaviour, perceptions and language attitudes was also analysed. The notions of ‘space’, ‘place’ and ‘spatiality’ were accorded considerable importance: the interactions between language and ‘space’ as the factors of ‘mobility’, ‘media consumption’, ‘sense of place’ and ‘regional belonging’ were also examined. The findings include that French in the Belgian borderland is more similar to that in France than to elsewhere in Francophone Belgium and that this is due to a number of factors. Moreover, the French in the borderland appears to be converging on that in France, although some differences persist. It was also found that spatial factors interact with both linguistic and social ones. Finally, it was concluded that whilst there is no longer a physical barrier at the national border, it persists to an extent as a psychological one, and this has ramifications for borderlanders’ behaviour: be it linguistic or otherwise.

Cette thèse examine l’alternance en romani du Mexique de la copule si et des clitiques sujet -lo ; -li/-la ; -le. Il s’agit d’un phénomène linguistique absent de toutes les variétés romani parlées en Europe et qui selon Adamou (2013) s’est développé sous l’influence de l’espagnol dans les communautés romani installées en Amérique Latine depuis le 19e siècle. La présente étude s’appuie des données originales collectées auprès de locuteurs bilingues de la communauté de La Rinconada dans l’État de Veracruz au Mexique. En analysant un corpus oral spontané d’environ 16 heures et les réponses de 60 personnes à un questionnaire de choix de copule, j’ai pu dégager les variables qui sous-tendent l’emploi des copules en espagnol et romani. Les variables linguistiques décrites traditionnellement pour la variation des copules ser et estar en espagnol, comme par exemple le Cadre de référence et le Type de prédicat, s’avèrent aussi pertinentes pour comprendre l’emploi des copules romani. Les clitiques sujet romani sont particulièrement dynamiques dans les constructions de troisième personne affirmatives au présent où ils tendent à éclipser la copule romani traditionnelle si. Il est possible d’argumenter que cette expansion provoquée par le contact avec l’espagnol influence à son tour l’emploi des copules en espagnol. En effet, on observe parallèlement un dynamisme de la copule estar et son extension à des contextes précédemment occupés par la copule ser, une tendance plus générale documentée par ailleurs pour l’espagnol du Mexique. / This thesis examines the alternation in of the Romani copula si and the subject clitics lo; -li/-la; -le. It is a linguistic phenomenon that is absent from all the Romani varieties spoken in Europe and which according to Adamou (2013) has been developed under the influence of Spanish in the Romani communities who have settled in Latin America since the 19th century. This study has been possible thanks to the collection of original data from bilingual speakers of the community of La Rinconada in the State of Veracruz in Mexico. Based on the analysis of a spontaneous oral corpus of approximately 16 hours and responses from 60 participants to a questionnaire of copula choice, I was able to identify the variables underlying the use of copulas in both languages. The linguistic variables described for the variation of the copulas ser and estar in Spanish, as for example the frame of reference and the type of predicate, are also relevant to understand the use of copulas in Romani. However, it appears clearly that the Romani subject clitics are particularly dynamic in present affirmative constructions of third person where they tend to overshadow the traditional Romani copula si. It is possible to argue that this expansion that started under the influence of Spanish is now in turn influencing the use of Spanish copulas. Indeed, there is in parallel a dynamic use of the copula estar and extension to contexts previously covered by the copula ser, following a more general trend documented in Mexican Spanish.

Cette thèse comprend cinq manuscrits d'articles. Deux de ces manuscrits sont publiés, l’un est actuellement en révision et deux sont en préparation pour soumission.Les animaux diffèrent de manière stable au cours du temps et dans différents contextes dans leur comportement, un phénomène souvent nommé personnalité animale. Les animaux diffèrent ainsi dans leur niveau d’expression de différents traits de personnalités. Cependant l’étude de la stabilité des traits de personnalité chez les jeunes animaux apporte des résultats controversés. Les deux principaux objectifs de cette thèse ont donc été d’évaluer comment l’environnement précoce des animaux façonnait leur personnalité et si l’expression de leur comportement était stable au cours du développement. Notre modèle d’étude était un petit rongeur d’origine sauvage, la souris glaneuse Mus spicilegus. Cette souris se trouve dans les zones agricoles d’Europe centrale et orientale. Il s'agit d'une espèce monogame et la femelle et le mâle participent aux soins parentaux. Les principaux résultats de cette thèse soulignent la stabilité des réponses comportementales des souris glaneuses dans des contextes sociaux et non-sociaux tôt lors de la période post-natale jusqu’à la maturité. De nombreux traits de personnalité étaient associés à travers différents contextes ; formant ainsi ce qu'il est convenu d'appeler un syndrome comportemental. Cette stabilité dans le comportement était avérée que l'analyse porte sur la totalité de l'échantillon ou qu'elle prenait en compte les différences intra-portées. L’environnement précoce et en particulier la présence du père apparaissent déterminants dans l’émergence et la modulation de la personnalité. Les individus élevés sans père montraient une plus grande réactivité dans deux tests différents par rapport à ceux élevés avec les deux parents. Différentes personnalités étaient associées à des mécanismes physiologiques. Confrontés à un stresseur chronique, les individus exprimant différentes personnalités montraient des différences physiologiques caractérisées par des profils immunologiques et hormonaux distincts. D'autre part les couples possédant des scores similaires d’anxiété, indépendamment du score des deux partenaires du couple, avaient une plus grande probabilité de reproduction durant la période d’observation, que les couples aux scores différents suggérant de potentiels avantages évolutifs. Cette thèse aborde en parallèle les aspects proximaux et ultimes du comportement chez un même modèle biologique ce qui est un but rarement atteint dans une étude éthologique. / This thesis includes five manuscripts. Two are already published, one is currently under review and two others are in preparation for submission.Animals frequently show consistent individual differences in behaviour across time and contexts, a phenomenon called animal personality. Animals have been thus described to differ in the expression level of different specific personality traits. However, consistencies in animal personality traits in young animals are especially controversial. One of the main aims of this thesis was therefore to investigate how the early environment experienced shapes the behavioural phenotype and whether the expression of behaviour remains stable over ontogeny. To this end, we used a small rodent of wild origin, the mound-building mouse Mus spicilegus, as an animal model. This monogamous mouse occurs in a variety of agricultural and steppe-like habitats in Central and South Eastern Europe, and is characterized by bi-parental care. The main results of this thesis highlight the consistency of personality traits in the mound building mouse from the early postnatal period until around maturity, both in social and non-social contexts. Various personality traits were associated across context, thus forming a behavioural syndrome. Such consistencies across time and context were present when looking at the individual level but also when focusing on the relative differences among siblings within a litter. The early developmental environment proved to be decisive in modulating the emergence personality of the individual, via the presence or absence of the father. Pups growing up in absence of the father showed indications of a higher responsiveness in two different tests compared to pups raised by mothers only. We showed how personality differences are related to physiological parameters. Different personality types coped physiologically different with a chronic stressor, apparent by their hormonal and immunological profiles. Pairs with similar anxiety scores, independently of the scores of both partners of the pair, had a higher probability of breeding, and brought forward the onset of breeding during the observation period, which carries along potential fitness benefits. This dissertation brings thus together some insights into the proximate and ultimate aspects underlying consistent individual differences in behaviour, which is seldom the case in a same model species.

La réponse des arbres à l'augmentation des sécheresses liées au réchauffement climatique dépend de leur capacité d'adaptation, c’est-à-dire de la variation génétique et de l’héritabilité de caractères adaptatifs impliqués dans la résistance à la sécheresse. Dans le chapitre I, nous identifions des proxys facilement mesurables de caractères adaptatifs impliqués dans la résistance à la sécheresse en comparant la microdensité du bois d’individus morts et survivants après la sécheresse de 2003. Les variables les plus discriminantes sont les densités moyennes de segments de haute et basse densité, la proportion du segment de haute densité et le coefficient de variation du segment de haute densité. Les arbres survivants ont toujours une densité plus élevée et des profils généralement plus hétérogènes. Si ces traits sont suffisamment variables génétiquement et héritables, alors il est possible de sélectionner des arbres plus résistants à la sécheresse dans les populations d'amélioration et dans les peuplements forestiers destinés à être régénérées naturellement. Nos résultats suggèrent qu’une sélection naturelle directionnelle pour la densité du bois du douglas se produit dans des environnements plus ou moins limités en eau. Cette sélection agit dans des directions différentes selon les caractéristiques des pressions de sélections subies dans les régions étudiées. Dans le chapitre II, nous évaluons le potentiel d’adaptation à la sécheresse du douglas introduit en France. Ce potentiel d’adaptation dépend de la variation génétique et de l'héritabilité des caractères adaptatifs mis en évidence dans le chapitre I. Nous trouvons une grande variabilité des estimations d’héritabilité et d’AGCV entre variables, provenances, sites et, dans une faible mesure, entre cernes annuels. La plupart des variables possèdent des héritabilités élevées à assez élevées au moins pour certaines provenances dans certains sites. Certaines variables tendent à avoir des héritabilités et AGCV généralement plus élevées : ce sont plutôt des variables de la partie de faible densité du cerne. Certaines variables de résistance à la sécheresse possèdent à la fois une héritabilité et une AGCV élevées : ce sont de bons critères de sélection pour la résistance à la sécheresse en amélioration génétique ou en régénération naturelle. Les estimations différentes entre sites suggèrent que les estimations d’héritabilités augmentent avec le caractère favorable du milieu. Les estimations sont significativement différentes entre provenances, avec de forts effets d’interaction avec les sites. En revanche il y a peu ou pas de différences significatives entre cernes. Dans le chapitre III, nous avons tenu compte de la variation associée aux cernes de croissance pour étudier les relations entre les estimations annuelles de paramètres génétiques et des variables climatiques et édaphiques. Les estimations d'héritabilité et de variation génétique de la plupart des variables de microdensité sont corrélées significativement avec la plupart des variables environnementales testées. De rares variables n’ont montré aucune corrélation significative dans aucun cas. Les caractéristiques des relations significatives sont variables entre les caractères, les sites et les provenances. Les prédicteurs climatiques les plus importants sont la température, l'évapotranspiration, la réserve en eau du sol et le déficit en eau. Les précipitations affectent peu l´estimation des paramètres génétiques. De façon générale, meilleures sont les conditions de croissance, plus élevées sont les estimations. Toutes les composantes des essais expérimentaux modifient les estimations des paramètres génétiques. Certaines peuvent être fortement déterminées par le choix du matériel végétal et du site. D'autres, comme la variation climatique temporelle, sont moins contrôlées et peuvent affecter de façon plus ou moins aléatoire les estimations. / Forest response to the drought increase associated to the climatic warming relies on tree adaptive potential, i.e. the genetic variation and the heritability of adaptive traits involved in resistance to drought. In the first chapter, we identify easy-to-measure proxies of adaptive traits for resistance to drought. We compare the wood microdensity of dead and surviving trees after the 2003 heat wave in France. The most discriminating variables are the mean density of high and lowdensity segments, high-density proportion and coefficient of variation of the lowdensity segment. The wood of the surviving trees is always denser and more heterogeneous. If these adaptive traits are variable and heritable, then it is possible to select for improved resistance to drought in the breeding population as well as in natural regeneration. Our results also suggest that directional selection is going on in more or less water-stressed environments. The direction is variable according to the nature of the selection pressure in the different regions. In the Chapter II, we estimate the evolutionary potential to drought of the introduced Douglas-fir in France. This evolutionary potential relies on the magnitude of the genetic variation and of the heritability of the adaptive traits found in the first chapter. The heritability and the genetic variation are highly variable between provenances, sites and, to a much lower extent, between annual rings. Most variables have moderate to high heritability estimates for at least some provenances in some sites. Some traits tend to have generally higher heritability and genetic variation estimates. These are mostly variables of the density part of the annual ring. The variables having at the same time relatively high estimates of heritability and genetic variation are good candidates for becoming efficient selection traits for resistance to drought in tree breeding as well as in natural regeneration. The significant between-site variation suggests that the heritability estimates increase with site quality. The estimates are also significantly different between provenances with a strong provenance × site interaction. Conversely there is little significant between annual-ring variation. The chapter III takes advantage of the annual-ring variation to study the relationships between the genetic parameter estimates and climatic and soil variables. The heritability and genetic variation estimates of most variables significantly relates with most tested environmental variables. Very few variables never correlates with any environmental variable. The significant relationships are very variable between traits, provenances and sites. The most important predictors are temperature, evapotranspiration, and soil water reserve and water deficit. Rainfall marginally influences the genetic parameter estimates. Generally, the better the growing conditions, the higher the estimates. All components of the experimental trials affect the genetic parameters estimates. Thus, the choice of the plant material and of the experimental site strongly determines the genetic parameter estimates. The uncontrolled climatic variation may randomly affect the estimates.

The Lower Karori Reservoir (LKR) is a small, monomictic lake of 2.34 ha situated in the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS), Wellington. Over the past decade cyanobacterial blooms have become a common occurrence in this water body. In 2005 Anabaena planktonica was detected for the first time in the LKR and this species now forms dense blooms during summer. These blooms are problematic as they reduce aesthetic appeal and have resulted in odour problems for visitors to this high profile wildlife sanctuary. The objectives of this study were to identify key physical, chemical and biological variables influencing phytoplankton dynamics in the LKR and to use ecological models to investigate plausible management options. The key parameters investigated, that may cause bloom formation were; summer stratification, high nutrient levels, and the food web effects of a large population of European perch (Perca fluviatilis). High resolution sampling was carried out every six hours over a 72 hour period during pre-bloom, bloom and post-bloom periods in 2006/7 to elucidate short term temporal and spatial variations in biological and physico-chemical parameters. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (QPCR) was used to enumerate A. planktonica populations, allowing a large number of samples to be simultaneously evaluated. Algal densities were also estimated using conventional phytoplankton enumeration and chlorophyll a analysis. Water samples were collected for nutrient analysis at discrete depths and profiles were taken for temperature, dissolved oxygen and photosynthetic active radiation. Secchi depth and pH were also measured. Weekly or fortnightly phytoplankton and zooplankton samples and physical variables have been collected at LKR since September 2005 as part of an independent sampling program carried out by the KWS, Waikato University and Cawthron Institute. In this project the 2-year data set was used to assist with analysis of lake processes and for validation of the hydrodynamic-ecological model DYRESM-CAEDYM. Between 12 and 15 February, 2007, electric fishing was undertaken within the LKR. A total of 3,946 P. fluviatilis were removed and the effects on phytoplankton and zooplankton concentrations were investigated. To increase knowledge of the physiology of A. planktonica, laboratory experiments were undertaken using cultures subjected to a range of different light intensities and temperature regimes The phytoplankton assemblage of the LKR shows very distinct temporal variations. Summer stratification occurred in the LKR for ~4 months each summer. During these periods A. planktonica comprised up to 99.9% of the surface phytoplankton population. During isothermy chlorophytes, bacillariophytes and small flagellated dinophytes are co-dominant in the phytoplankton assemblage. The results of the QPCR showed distinct diurnal vertical movement of A. planktonica, with the highest cell concentrations occurring at 1900 hours at the surface. Ammonium (NH4-N) is the dominant species of inorganic nitrogen during periods of stratification, while nitrate (NO3-N) is generally dominant during times of isothermy. Phosphate concentrations at surface and depth remained at low levels throughout the sampling period. The large surface populations of A. planktonica, are probably responsible for the elevated total nitrogen concentrations in surface waters during stratified periods. There appeared to be some short term effects of the P. fluviatilis removal with an increase in large crustaceans (e.g., Daphnia sp.) and a reduction in A. planktonica densities observed in the months following the P. fluviatilis removal. Only a small proportion of the total P. fluviatilis population was removed and it is unlikely that the effects will be long-lasting without subsequent removal steps. However, it seems likely that P. fluviatilis is one of the factors contributing to cyanobacterial blooms and management of this fish species should be considered in future lake restoration plans. Growth experiments indicated A. planktonica grow over a wide range of light intensities and temperatures, although highest growth rates were generally associated with higher temperatures (25 C) and light intensities (60 - 140 μmol m-2 s-1). Ecological and hydrodynamic trends within the LKR over a two year period were simulated with adequate success using the model DYRESM-CAEDYM. Management scenarios simulated using DYRESM-CAEDYM suggest implementation of an artificial destratification system in the LKR may be the most practical and effective means of controlling A. planktonica blooms. The addition of an artificial aeration system emitting air at a rate of approximately 50 l-1 s-1 should result in an isothermal system. Without summer stratification some of the physiological features of A. planktonica (e.g., buoyancy regulation and nitrogen-fixation) that give it a competitive advantage over other phytoplankton species will be reduced.

<p>Denna rapport handlar om hur man som lärare kan variera undervisningen i matematik med en fokusering på laborativ matematik. Den riktar sig främst mot gymnasiet men är även aktuell för både för yngre och äldre åldrar. Rapporten behandlar lärares och elevers syn på undervisning samt ger konkreta förslag på hur sådan undervisning kan gå till. Syftet med rapporten är att undersöka vad det finns för alternativ till traditionell undervisning och presentera dessa. Metoden som använts är intervjuer där jag tagit kontakt med lärare som är kända för att använda alternativa undervisningsmetoder och laborativ matematik. Totalt fem intervjuer.</p><p> </p><p>Resultatet visar på att undervisningen i matematik är enformig och att den bör varieras för att bli lärorik och intressant. Rapporten ger konkreta förslag på hur sådan undervisning kan gå till. Flera lärare vill testa alternativ undervisning men tvekar eftersom de inte vet att den fungerar eller anser att det inte finns tid till sådan arbetsmetod. En varierad, laborativ undervisning verkar ge goda resultat men det finns inga vetenskapliga undersökningar som bevisar detta.</p> / <p>This report investigates various ways of diversifying mathematics teaching, especially elaborative mathematics. Primarily it focuses upper secondary school, but the results should have an impact on lower and higher levels as well. From an account of teacher and student views the report provides some concrete suggestions for improvement. The purpose of the report is to investigate alternatives for the traditional ways of teaching. Five teachers known for their experience on alternative teaching methods and on laboratory mathematics have been interviewed.</p><p> </p><p>The result shows that mathematics teaching is uniform and that it needs to be diversified. The report presents a sample of ideas for such teaching. Many teachers are willing to try this type of teaching but hesitate since there are no proofs of positive results or because there is too little time for such methods. A diversified, laboratory teaching seems to contribute good results but this has not been proved.</p>