Triple oxygen and hydrogen isotope analysis of the structurally-bound water in gypsum can provide a direct measure of past hydrologic variability. This thesis presents the development of the water extraction and isotopic measurement procedures, the calculation of the gypsum-water isotope fractionation factors, and the application of the method to constrain the palaeohydrologic conditions in two temporally and geographically disparate sites. Measurement of the isotopic composition of gypsum hydration water is used to examine the hydrological changes that occurred during the Terminal Classic Drought of the Maya lowlands (~800-1000 CE), coincident with the period when the Classic Maya Civilization of Mesoamerica collapsed. The data provide a complete and direct archive of hydrological conditions that have previously been limited to ice core records. Mean annual rainfall is shown to have decreased by between 41% and 54%, with intervals of up to 70%, compared to present-day conditions. This study has also shown for the first time that relative humidity was 2%-7% lower during the Terminal Classic Drought compared to today. The methodology is also applied to the massive gypsum deposits in the marginal and deep basins of the Mediterranean to interpret the chemical evolution of parent water bodies during the Messinian Salinity Crisis (5.97-5.3 Ma). By combining the measurement of gypsum hydration water with other traditional (e.g. strontium) and novel (e.g. calcium and barium) isotope tracers, the hydrological changes during the deposition of Primary Lower Gypsum units of the Sorbas Basin in southeastern Spain, the Upper Gypsum units of Sicily, and deep basin deposits have been constrained. The results indicate that all deposits experienced a significant freshwater contribution to the mother fluids from which they formed. It is proposed that obliquity-controlled sea level and eccentricity-modulated precession, superimposed on longer-term tectonic restriction of the Mediterranean-Atlantic exchange, together controlled the varying depositional environments during the formation of the Messinian Salt Giant. This thesis demonstrates that the analysis of gypsum hydration water is a powerful tool for palaeoclimate reconstruction. The methodology can be applied to gypsum (and other hydrated minerals) in a wide range of settings across geological space and time, providing a rich source of information about the environmental conditions under which they formed.

Este trabalho analisa o início da transformação do Museu Julio de Castilho (Porto Alegre-RS) de um museu de caráter enciclopédico, que priorizou durante as suas duas primeiras décadas as coleções de ciências naturais, a um museu histórico, tomando como recorte temporal o período compreendido entre 1925 e 1939, relativo à gestão do segundo diretor da instituição, Alcides Maya. Insere o surgimento do MJC, no ano de 1903, no contexto da Era brasileira de museus, quando predominavam os museus de caráter enciclopédico, bem como vincula o seu processo de especialização rumo à história ao declínio desse movimento no final dos anos 1920, mas também incorporando a essa transformação fatores de ordem interna regional, ressaltando o papel central de Maya nessa mudança. Descreve o surgimento dos museus de história na Europa, enfatizando os museus franceses do século XIX como os modelos seguidos na constituição de instituições congêneres no Brasil, as quais, através da exposição de imagens e objetos de personalidades e eventos de exceção, assumiram uma função evocativa e celebrativa do passado na constituição da identidade nacional. Identifica-se, no que se refere à identidade regional do Rio Grande do Sul, essa mesma função no MJC, com a formação das coleções de objetos e imagens dos políticos e militares envolvidos fundamentalmente na Guerra dos Farrapos A partir da documentação administrativa, a tese apresenta a formação do acervo das seções do Departamento de História Nacional do MJC, destacando o papel de Eduardo Duarte nesse trabalho, procurando identificar a relação entre a produção historiográfica elaborada no período em análise e a constituição das coleções do Museu. Examina ainda a criação de uma Pinacoteca Histórica no MJC com a intenção de representar os personagens e locais considerados importantes para a história sul-rio-grandense, identificando o investimento do governo do estado na visualização do passado descrito nos documentos do Arquivo Histórico na configuração da identidade regional relacionada ao passado farroupilha. Identifica as concepções de história moderna e clássica operando, respectivamente, no Arquivo Histórico e nas demais seções do Departamento de História Nacional do MJC. Por meio destes procedimentos, a pesquisa buscou compreender a concepção de história (e outras noções a ela atinentes, como documento histórico, autenticidade e tempo). / This study aims to analyze the initial transformation of Júlio de Castilhos Museum in the city of Porto Alegre, State of Rio Grande do Sul, from one of encyclopedic nature that prioritized natural sciences collections into an historical museum during its first two decades, comprising the period between 1925 and 1939, under the management of Alcides Maya, the second director of the institution. The study inserts the emergence of the MJC (Júlio de Castilhos Museum) in the year 1903 into the Brazilian Museum Era context, when museums of an encyclopedic nature prevailed, as well as links its specialization process towards history to the decline of this trend in the late 1920s, which also included factors of internal regional nature, emphasizing Maya's central role in this change. It describes the emergence of history museums in Europe, emphasizing 19th century French museums as models for the establishment of similar institutions in Brazil which, through the exhibition of images, personality objects and exception events, took on an evocative and celebrative function of the past in making up a national identity. As to the regional Rio Grande do Sul identity, that same MJC role could be identified, with the formation of memorabilia collections of objects from politicians and the military involved mainly in the Guerra dos Farrapos (Farrapos War) From the administrative documentation, the dissertation presents the MJC collection of the Department of National History sections, highlighting Eduardo Duarte's role and trying to identify the relationship between the historiographic production developed in the period under analysis and the formation of the Museum collections. It also examines the creation of a Historical Art Gallery by MJC with the intention of representing characters and places thought to be important for the history of Rio Grande do Sul, identifying the investment of the State government in displaying the past described in the Historical Archive documentation and in setting a regional identity related to the Farroupilha Revolution past. Finally, it identifies modern and classical history conceptions by analyzing both the Historical Archive and in other sections of the MJC Department of National History. Through these procedures, the research sought to understand the conception of history (and other notions related to it, such as historical documentation, authenticity and time).

Este trabalho analisa o início da transformação do Museu Julio de Castilho (Porto Alegre-RS) de um museu de caráter enciclopédico, que priorizou durante as suas duas primeiras décadas as coleções de ciências naturais, a um museu histórico, tomando como recorte temporal o período compreendido entre 1925 e 1939, relativo à gestão do segundo diretor da instituição, Alcides Maya. Insere o surgimento do MJC, no ano de 1903, no contexto da Era brasileira de museus, quando predominavam os museus de caráter enciclopédico, bem como vincula o seu processo de especialização rumo à história ao declínio desse movimento no final dos anos 1920, mas também incorporando a essa transformação fatores de ordem interna regional, ressaltando o papel central de Maya nessa mudança. Descreve o surgimento dos museus de história na Europa, enfatizando os museus franceses do século XIX como os modelos seguidos na constituição de instituições congêneres no Brasil, as quais, através da exposição de imagens e objetos de personalidades e eventos de exceção, assumiram uma função evocativa e celebrativa do passado na constituição da identidade nacional. Identifica-se, no que se refere à identidade regional do Rio Grande do Sul, essa mesma função no MJC, com a formação das coleções de objetos e imagens dos políticos e militares envolvidos fundamentalmente na Guerra dos Farrapos A partir da documentação administrativa, a tese apresenta a formação do acervo das seções do Departamento de História Nacional do MJC, destacando o papel de Eduardo Duarte nesse trabalho, procurando identificar a relação entre a produção historiográfica elaborada no período em análise e a constituição das coleções do Museu. Examina ainda a criação de uma Pinacoteca Histórica no MJC com a intenção de representar os personagens e locais considerados importantes para a história sul-rio-grandense, identificando o investimento do governo do estado na visualização do passado descrito nos documentos do Arquivo Histórico na configuração da identidade regional relacionada ao passado farroupilha. Identifica as concepções de história moderna e clássica operando, respectivamente, no Arquivo Histórico e nas demais seções do Departamento de História Nacional do MJC. Por meio destes procedimentos, a pesquisa buscou compreender a concepção de história (e outras noções a ela atinentes, como documento histórico, autenticidade e tempo). / This study aims to analyze the initial transformation of Júlio de Castilhos Museum in the city of Porto Alegre, State of Rio Grande do Sul, from one of encyclopedic nature that prioritized natural sciences collections into an historical museum during its first two decades, comprising the period between 1925 and 1939, under the management of Alcides Maya, the second director of the institution. The study inserts the emergence of the MJC (Júlio de Castilhos Museum) in the year 1903 into the Brazilian Museum Era context, when museums of an encyclopedic nature prevailed, as well as links its specialization process towards history to the decline of this trend in the late 1920s, which also included factors of internal regional nature, emphasizing Maya's central role in this change. It describes the emergence of history museums in Europe, emphasizing 19th century French museums as models for the establishment of similar institutions in Brazil which, through the exhibition of images, personality objects and exception events, took on an evocative and celebrative function of the past in making up a national identity. As to the regional Rio Grande do Sul identity, that same MJC role could be identified, with the formation of memorabilia collections of objects from politicians and the military involved mainly in the Guerra dos Farrapos (Farrapos War) From the administrative documentation, the dissertation presents the MJC collection of the Department of National History sections, highlighting Eduardo Duarte's role and trying to identify the relationship between the historiographic production developed in the period under analysis and the formation of the Museum collections. It also examines the creation of a Historical Art Gallery by MJC with the intention of representing characters and places thought to be important for the history of Rio Grande do Sul, identifying the investment of the State government in displaying the past described in the Historical Archive documentation and in setting a regional identity related to the Farroupilha Revolution past. Finally, it identifies modern and classical history conceptions by analyzing both the Historical Archive and in other sections of the MJC Department of National History. Through these procedures, the research sought to understand the conception of history (and other notions related to it, such as historical documentation, authenticity and time).

Este trabalho analisa o início da transformação do Museu Julio de Castilho (Porto Alegre-RS) de um museu de caráter enciclopédico, que priorizou durante as suas duas primeiras décadas as coleções de ciências naturais, a um museu histórico, tomando como recorte temporal o período compreendido entre 1925 e 1939, relativo à gestão do segundo diretor da instituição, Alcides Maya. Insere o surgimento do MJC, no ano de 1903, no contexto da Era brasileira de museus, quando predominavam os museus de caráter enciclopédico, bem como vincula o seu processo de especialização rumo à história ao declínio desse movimento no final dos anos 1920, mas também incorporando a essa transformação fatores de ordem interna regional, ressaltando o papel central de Maya nessa mudança. Descreve o surgimento dos museus de história na Europa, enfatizando os museus franceses do século XIX como os modelos seguidos na constituição de instituições congêneres no Brasil, as quais, através da exposição de imagens e objetos de personalidades e eventos de exceção, assumiram uma função evocativa e celebrativa do passado na constituição da identidade nacional. Identifica-se, no que se refere à identidade regional do Rio Grande do Sul, essa mesma função no MJC, com a formação das coleções de objetos e imagens dos políticos e militares envolvidos fundamentalmente na Guerra dos Farrapos A partir da documentação administrativa, a tese apresenta a formação do acervo das seções do Departamento de História Nacional do MJC, destacando o papel de Eduardo Duarte nesse trabalho, procurando identificar a relação entre a produção historiográfica elaborada no período em análise e a constituição das coleções do Museu. Examina ainda a criação de uma Pinacoteca Histórica no MJC com a intenção de representar os personagens e locais considerados importantes para a história sul-rio-grandense, identificando o investimento do governo do estado na visualização do passado descrito nos documentos do Arquivo Histórico na configuração da identidade regional relacionada ao passado farroupilha. Identifica as concepções de história moderna e clássica operando, respectivamente, no Arquivo Histórico e nas demais seções do Departamento de História Nacional do MJC. Por meio destes procedimentos, a pesquisa buscou compreender a concepção de história (e outras noções a ela atinentes, como documento histórico, autenticidade e tempo). / This study aims to analyze the initial transformation of Júlio de Castilhos Museum in the city of Porto Alegre, State of Rio Grande do Sul, from one of encyclopedic nature that prioritized natural sciences collections into an historical museum during its first two decades, comprising the period between 1925 and 1939, under the management of Alcides Maya, the second director of the institution. The study inserts the emergence of the MJC (Júlio de Castilhos Museum) in the year 1903 into the Brazilian Museum Era context, when museums of an encyclopedic nature prevailed, as well as links its specialization process towards history to the decline of this trend in the late 1920s, which also included factors of internal regional nature, emphasizing Maya's central role in this change. It describes the emergence of history museums in Europe, emphasizing 19th century French museums as models for the establishment of similar institutions in Brazil which, through the exhibition of images, personality objects and exception events, took on an evocative and celebrative function of the past in making up a national identity. As to the regional Rio Grande do Sul identity, that same MJC role could be identified, with the formation of memorabilia collections of objects from politicians and the military involved mainly in the Guerra dos Farrapos (Farrapos War) From the administrative documentation, the dissertation presents the MJC collection of the Department of National History sections, highlighting Eduardo Duarte's role and trying to identify the relationship between the historiographic production developed in the period under analysis and the formation of the Museum collections. It also examines the creation of a Historical Art Gallery by MJC with the intention of representing characters and places thought to be important for the history of Rio Grande do Sul, identifying the investment of the State government in displaying the past described in the Historical Archive documentation and in setting a regional identity related to the Farroupilha Revolution past. Finally, it identifies modern and classical history conceptions by analyzing both the Historical Archive and in other sections of the MJC Department of National History. Through these procedures, the research sought to understand the conception of history (and other notions related to it, such as historical documentation, authenticity and time).

"This monograph adds important data on the development of Preclassic period ceramics in northern Belize."—American Antiquity"This book contributes to our understanding of early Maya society during an era that has only new been revealed."—The Chesopiean"Kosakowsky's book, produced in the clear, easy-to-read and well designed format . . . is a substantive contribution to Maya ceramic studies."—Journal of Latin American Studies

Background Middle-income countries are currently undergoing nutrition transition more rapidly than did high income countries. These populations are therefore at high risk of over-nutrition (obesity) and nutrition-related, non-communicable diseases before the elimination of under-nutrition and infectious diseases. Such nutritional double burden is most common in low SES groups of middle-income countries, such as the Maya of Mexico. Long-term poor environmental conditions during early life results in a population with high levels of chronic under-nutrition (stunting), and a consequent predisposition toward overweight/ obesity, and associated health risks later in life. It is important to be able to identify individuals at an increased risk of diseases related to double burden and to determine whether stunting impacts the ability to identify at risk individuals. Aims The overall purpose of this doctoral research was to examine double burden in the urban Maya, a low SES section of the Mexican population which is a current example of a population undergoing significant transition. The specific aims of this thesis were fourfold: 1) To describe the living conditions and population characteristics of the urban Maya of southern Merida in the spring and summer of 2010; 2) to determine whether body mass index (BMI) predicts adiposity indicators in a sample of women and children with a high prevalence of stunting, 3) to determine whether measures of linear growth in women can be predicted by their recalled childhood environment and 4) To determine whether the relationship between objectively estimated free-living energy expenditure and body composition is altered by stunting. Methods Data from interviews, anthropometric measurements and bioelectrical impedance analysis were collected on 58 Maya schoolchildren aged 7-9 years-old and their mothers living in the south of Merida, Mexico. Objective, free-living physical activity monitoring using combined accelerometry and heart rate monitoring of the children was also performed for one week. The interview data was used to describe the living conditions of the south of Merida. Whether stunting status or body proportions influenced the power of BMI to predict adiposity indicators was assessed for the mothers and the children. The mothers recalled early life SES was compared to their current measures of linear growth. The children s objectively estimated energy expenditure was compared to their body composition and measurements of body size. Results The Maya of southern Merida overall had access to clean drinking water and basic health care and have apparently eliminated acute under-nutrition. Yet they remained double burdened with simultaneous stunting and overweight/ obesity. Individual double burden levels were high, with 70% of the mothers were simultaneously stunted and overweight. Family level double burden was also high, with 28% of the families having an overweight mother and a stunted child. The rates of childhood malnutrition varied widely when using different cut-offs. Child stunting rates were between 15.5% and 37.9% when using -2 z-scores of Frisancho s Comprehensive (created using NHANES data) reference versus the 5th percentile of the WHO reference, respectively. Child overweight/ obesity rates were less than 10% when using weight-for-age on both the Comprehensive and WHO reference charts. Child overweight/ obesity as classified using BMI z-scores was between 27.5 to 34.5% using the Comprehensive and WHO reference, respectively, while child overfat was over 80% when using body fat percentage for age reference curves. BMI predicted adiposity indicators in these Maya children, explaining between 33 and 84% of the variance in arm fat index and waist circumference z-score, respectively. BMI was less strongly related to the mothers adiposity indicators, explaining between 19 and 70% of the variance in arm fat area and waist circumference. The relationship between BMI and adiposity indicators was unchanged by stunting or body proportions in either mothers or children. Mothers recalled early life SES was significantly related to but explained little of the variance in her measures of linear growth. Birth decade explained 5% of the variance in stature and the Modernisation index (urban/ rural birth, sugar sweetened beverage consumption, packaged food consumption) explained 5% of the variance in mothers leg length. Birth order, sibling number and consumer durable ownership were also significantly related to linear growth of the mothers. These Maya children had high levels of physical activity, as all exceeded the recommended 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per day. After controlling for fat free mass, short stature did not predict lower resting energy expenditures in the children. However shorter stature did predict lower levels of activity energy expenditure, particularly in girls. Stunted girls had the lowest activity energy expenditures. Conclusions These urban Maya tend to have access to basic sanitation and services and are at a very high risk for NR-NCDs with the co-existence of chronic under-nutrition (stunting) and overweight/ obesity. The high rates of stunting do not impact the usefulness of BMI to estimate adiposity nor does stunting appear to impact children s energy expenditure. While BMI is useful to predict adiposity in these urban Maya children, it is not recommended for use in the mothers. Interventions to reduce childhood adiposity need to begin very early in life to most effectively reduce adiposity. Research into the low SES groups of middle-income countries, offers insight to what may occur in low-income countries as they advance in the nutrition transition.

As one of many other distinct painting styles that appeared on ceramics throughout the Guatemalan Lowlands of the Late Classic Period (AD 600-900), the Red Background vases represented the economic reach of the owner into local and foreign courtly culture. Supernatural processions, playful hieroglyphic texts, and the distinctive red background circulated on vases, plates, and bowls in order to perform prestige and the elite identity in public feasts. The diverse narrative content of these vessels reveals the importance of mytho-historic origin stories and supernatural identities to the prevailing political order, while the unique hieroglyphic texts link the style and its imagery to the royal court of Pa’ Chan. However, the lack of context for most of these vases thwarts a straightforward understanding of their role in Maya society as objects from a specific geographic place with archaeological provenience. Despite this inability to embed the Red Background vases within a robust archaeological framework, the production and circulation of a visually distinct style by a named community still indicates that the creators of these objects wished to communicate a unique artistic identity through an intersection of formal qualities. Refocusing the question of agency through the lens of the final product reveals that these works acted as part of a larger campaign to create the typical courtly trappings of master artisan production and public social feasting with representatives of other powerful polities. This Master’s Thesis aims to examine the current corpus of almost sixty vases in order to describe how the Red Background style manifests. In addition, my study explores the tendency of many polychrome styles to link a specific royal court with the artistic product through hieroglyphic emblems. I conclude that the unique Pa’ Chan emblem takes this extroverted statement of belonging to a higher level, providing an emic classification of the vase where the text comprises a social category of art that performs identity through its distinct visuals. / text

À la fin du siècle dernier, lorsque les mouvements féministes secouèrent les milieux intellectuels, les questionnements sur le genre se sont retrouvés au cœur des débats en sciences sociales et en archéologie. L’archéologie maya n’échappa pas à la règle et les femmes, jusque là restées dans l’ombre, retrouvèrent une visibilité. Ce mémoire a pour objectif de dégager la complexité des constructions sociales, symboliques et idéologiques de genre au sein des couches sociales les plus élevées de la société maya classique, en regroupant et en confrontant une bonne partie des données archéologiques, iconographiques, épigraphiques mais aussi ethnohistoriques répertoriées dans la littérature. Nos résultats défendent l’idée selon laquelle les relations et les identités de genres au sein des élites dirigeantes, mais également non dirigeantes, étaient construites autour d'un principe fondamental de la pensée maya : la dualité complémentaire. / At the turn of the century, as feminist movements shook the foundations of academia, questions of gender were pushed to the fore front of debates in social sciences and archaeology. Mayan archaeology has followed this trend, shedding light on the previously neglected role of women in these societies. The goal of this thesis is to capture the complexity underlining the social, symbolic and ideological construction of gender in the upper echelons of classical Mayan society. This objective is pursued by compiling and confronting archaeological, iconographical, epigraphic and ethnohistorical data found in the literature. Our results support the thesis according to which relations and, identities pertaining to gender among the Mayan ruling and non-ruling elites were constructed along the lines of a fundamental principal of Mayan thought and culture: complimentary duality.

This master's thesis deals with sacrifice by decapitation. Its goal is to describe systematicaly this phenomenon which was widely practiced in the Mesoamerican area. To accomplish this there were firstly introduced the main interpretation lines of human sacrifice. The importance of maize for the Mesoamerican culture was described in the next chapter. The third part of this thesis introduces some Aztec festivities which are connected with ritual decapitation in Sahagún's Historia general. Then this thesis deals with the main aspects of the Mesoamerican ballgame and its connection with the story of the Hero twins from Popol Vuh is introduced here and analyzed. The fourth chapter describes the methods of ritual decapitation. It deals with the question of the fixation method described by Sahagún as "espaldas con espaldas" and the question of the ritual instrument which should have been used in this situation. Then it describes this method in the context of Maya sacrifices. The final part deals with the posthumous dealing with the head and the body of the sacrifices. Big part is given to the problem of tzompantli and the treating of the body. Two main techniques are presented here - skinning and ritual cannibalism. Then it describes the Maya techniques of treating the head which include storing skulls...

Master of Arts / Department of Modern Languages / Douglas Benson / The principal objective of this paper is to provide a thematic teaching unit that explores the Aztec, Incan and Mayan cultures of Latin America, designed for a level II Spanish course. It contains theoretical underpinnings for teaching language, culture and literature while incorporating concepts related to the development of communicative competence; processing instruction; the use of scaffolding in the zone of proximal development; target language instruction; and the inclusion of authentic materials and language in the classroom. The classroom management strategies explained and used throughout the unit include pre, during and post-reading activities; small group activities that help to develop communicative competence through negotiation of meaning and interactional feedback; focused tasks and collaborative output tasks; the use of structured input, structured output and information exchange; the PACE approach to grammar teaching; and the incorporation of authentic aural and written texts. Lesson plans for an eighteen day unit consisting of 40 minute classes are outlined; the lesson objective, necessary materials, time needed for each activity, and expected results of each lesson are included. Each lesson activity is made clear through a description of the activity and instructions for the teacher. The daily lesson plans contain authentic and teacher-created materials that can be found in the appendices section. At the end of the thematic unit, students complete cumulative activities that relate indigenous cultures to present-day life in Latin America through investigating the influence of Aztec words on the Spanish and English languages, analyzing a poem about Peru, and reading an article about discrimination against Mayan descendants in Central America, Mexico and the U.S.