Muitas aplicações biológicas da quitosana dependem de sua interação com membranas celulares, cujo mecanismo não é conhecido em nível molecular. Nesta tese, empregam-se filmes de Langmuir dos fosfolipídios dipalmitoil fosfatidil colina (DPPC), dipalmitoil fosfatidil glicerol (DPPG) e ácido dimiristoil fosfatídico (DMPA) para mimetizar a membrana, e é avaliada a influência dos grupos hidroxila e amino de quitosana nas propriedades dos filmes. Para tanto, O-acilquitosanas foram produzidas por meio de reação de acilação, gerando os derivados 3,6 - O,O\'- dietanoilquitosana (DEQUI) e 3,6 - O,O\'- dipropanoilquitosana (DPPQUI) solúveis em solução aquosa ácida, e 3,6 - O,O\'- dimiristoilquitosana (DMQUI) e 3,6 - O,O\'- dipalmitoilquitosana (DPQUI), solúveis em clorofórmio. DEQUI e DPPQUI afetam mais fortemente as isotermas de pressão de superfície e elasticidade dos filmes do que quitosana, sendo os efeitos de DPPQUI (mais hidrofóbico) maiores do que para DEQUI. Isso indica que ligações hidrogênio envolvendo as hidroxilas da quitosana não são essenciais na interação. Espectros no infravermelho com modulação de polarização (PM-IRRAS) confirmaram interações hidrofóbicas, com penetração dos derivados entre as moléculas de fosfolipídio. DEQUI causa mais ordenamento das cadeias do fosfolipídio, enquanto o efeito de DPPQUI é oposto. DMQUI e DPQUI formam filmes de Langmuir altamente compactados com agregação de moléculas, inferida das isotermas de pressão e potencial de superfície. Os resultados sobre a influência dos grupos amino foram inconclusivos, pois o comportamento atrativo entre os materiais pode ser devido tanto à existência de grupos com cargas opostas, quanto interações hidrofóbicas. Quitosanas com diferentes massas moleculares (alta - QAMM e baixa - QBMM) foram utilizadas para obter informações sobre a orientação dos grupos químicos da quitosana e fosfolipídios e conformação do polímero em solução. Espectros PM-IRRAS indicam maior efeito de QBMM em monocamadas de DPPG, provocando diminuição na intensidade e deslocamento para maiores números de onda das bandas de CH, inversão na orientação do grupo P=O do DPPG e maior intensidade da banda amida II, sugerindo maior densidade desses grupos na interface. Os espectros de geração de soma de frequência (SFG) mostraram diminuição na ordenação/compactação das caudas de DPPG, aumento do espaçamento entre as moléculas e de defeitos gauche. Conclui-se que derivados O-acilados de quitosana têm maior efeito sobre modelos de membrana, principalmente devido às forças hidrofóbicas, sendo mais adequados em aplicações biológicas que dependam dessa interação. Também favorece a interação com a membrana a atração eletrostática, com efeitos mais relevantes para quitosanas de menores massas moleculares. / Many biological applications of chitosan depend on its interaction with cell membranes, whose mechanism at the molecular level is not known. In this thesis, Langmuir films from the phospholipids dipalmitoyl phosphatidyl choline (DPPC), dipalmitoyl phosphatidyl glycerol (DPPG) and dimyristoyl phosphatidic acid (DMPA) were used to mimic the cell membrane, and effects from the hydroxyl and amine groups in chitosan on the film properties were evaluated. For this, O-acylchitosans were produced by acylation reaction, resulting in the derivatives 3,6 - O,O\' - diacetylchitosan (DECT) and 3,6 - O,O\'- dipropionylchitosan (DPPCT), which are soluble in acidic aqueous solution, and 3,6 - O,O\'- dimyristoylchitosan (DMCT) and 3,6 - O,O\'- dipalmitoylchitosan (DPCT), soluble in chloroform. DECT and DPPCT affect the surface pressure and elasticity of the films more strongly than chitosan, especially DPPCT that is more hydrophobic. This indicates that hydrogen bonds involving the hydroxyl groups from chitosan are not essential for the interaction. Polarization-modulated infrared reflection absorption (PM-IRRAS) spectra confirmed hydrophobic interactions with penetration of derivatives between the phospholipid molecules. DECT induces ordering in the chains, while the opposite occurs for DPPCT. DMCT and DPCT form highly compressed films with aggregation, as shown by surface pressure and surface potential isotherms. The results on the importance of amino groups were inconclusive because the attractive behavior between materials may be due to either the oppositely charged groups or hydrophobic interactions. Chitosans with different molecular weights (high - CHMW and low - CLMW) were used to obtain information about the chitosan and phospholipids chemical groups orientation and polymer conformation in solution. PM-IRRAS spectra indicate greater effect from QBMM on DPPG monolayers, causing a decrease in intensity and shift to higher wavenumbers of the CH bands, inversion in the orientation of the P=O group from DPPG and greater intensity of the amide II band, suggesting greater density of these groups at the interface. The sum-frequency generation (SFG) spectra showed a decrease in ordering/packing of the DPPG chains, increased spacing between molecules and gauche defects. Overall, the O-acyl derivatives of chitosan have greater effect on cell membrane models, owing to hydrophobic forces, being therefore more suitable for biological applications that depend on this interaction. Also important for the interaction is the electrostatic attraction, with more relevant effects observed with low-molecular weight chitosans.

O crescente número de bactérias resistentes é devido principalmente ao número limitado de modos de ação dos antibióticos, contra os quais bactérias criam mecanismo de resistência. Há, portanto, necessidade de terapias com espectro de ação mais amplo, atingindo diferentes alvos moleculares. A inativação fotodinâmica (IFD) pode ser uma dessas terapias, pois baseia-se na geração de espécies reativas que atacam diversas moléculas, e não um alvo específico. Fotossensibilizadores (FSs) absorvem luz em comprimento de onda específico e a energia absorvida pode ser transferida a um oxigênio molecular, gerando espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs). Tais espécies são altamente citotóxicas e produzem reações de oxidação que levam à morte celular. Um dos alvos das EROs são fosfolipídios insaturados das membranas biológicas. O objetivo desta dissertação é investigar a interação dos FSs curcumina e azul de metileno com fosfolipídios e o efeito da foto-ativação desses FSs em um mimético de membrana bacteriana. Para tanto, foram usados filmes de Langmuir do extrato lipídico de Escherichia coli e dos lipídios sintéticos isolados DOPE, POPG e cardiolipina. As isotermas de pressão com o extrato de E coli indicam interação entre os FSs e os lipídios do filme, aumentando a área ocupada. A irradiação do filme na presença de curcumina aumenta sua estabilidade, o que sugere formação de hidroperóxidos de lipídio, mais hidrofílicos, pela ação do oxigênio singleto. Nos filmes dos lipídios isolados só a curcumina é incorporada, havendo aumento na área ocupada pelo filme, e redução no potencial de superfície. Nenhum efeito decorrente da irradiação desses filmes foi detectado. Um filme Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) de extrato de E. coli com curcumina foi submetido a quatro ciclos de fotoclareamento seguido de recuperação da fluorescência visualizados num microscópio confocal. A intensidade da fluorescência aumentou após o primeiro ciclo, indicativo de mudança conformacional para alocar maior quantidade de curcumina, o que corrobora a hipótese da formação de hidroperóxidos. / The growing number of resistant bacteria is mainly due to the limited number of modes of action of antibiotics, against which bacteria create resistance. There is, therefore, a need for therapies with broader action spectrum, reaching different molecular targets. Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) may be one of these therapies, because it is based on the generation of reactive species that attack several molecules, not a specific target. Photosensitizers (FSs) absorb light at a specific wavelength and the absorbed energy can be transferred to a molecular oxygen, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS). Such species are highly cytotoxic and produce oxidation reactions that lead to cell death. One of the targets of ROS are unsaturated phospholipids from biological membranes. The objective of this dissertation is to investigate the interaction of the FSs curcumin and methylene blue with phospholipids and the effect of photoactivation of these FSs on a bacterial membrane mimetic. For this purpose, Langmuir films of the lipid extract of Escherichia coli and the synthetic lipids DOPE, POPG and cardiolipin were used. The surface pressure isotherms with the E. coli extract indicate interaction between the FSs and the lipids of the film, increasing the occupied area. The irradiation of the film in the presence of curcumin increases its stability, which suggests the formation of more hydrophilic lipid hydroperoxides by the action of singlet oxygen. In the synthetic lipid films only curcumin is incorporated, with increase in the area occupied by the film, and reduction in surface potential. No effect from irradiation of these films was detected. A Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) film of E. coli extract with curcumin was submitted to four cycles of photobleaching followed by fluorescence recovery visualized in a confocal microscope. The intensity of the fluorescence increased after the first cycle, indicative of conformational change to allocate a larger amount of curcumin, which corroborates the hypothesis of hydroperoxide formation.

Electric probes have been the primary instruments for the in situ investigation of plasma parameters in the Earth’s ionosphere. This dissertation is a compendium of three papers, each dealing with a separate spacecraft that carried one or more instruments based on the electric probe technique. The first paper presents data from the Sudden Atom Layer sounding rocket that carried an RF Impedance Probe, a DC fixed-bias Langmuir Probe (DCP), and an Electric Field Probe. The combined dataset indicates a case of payload surface charging, the causes of which are investigated within the paper. A generic circuit model is developed to analyze payload charging and behavior of Langmuir-type instruments. Our analysis indicates that the anomalous charging event was an outcome of triboelectrification of the payload surface from neutral dust particles present in the Earth’s mesosphere. These results suggest caution in interpreting observations from the Langmuir class of instrumentation within dusty environments. The second paper presents data from the Floating Potential Measurement Unit (FPMU) that is deployed on the International Space Station. The FPMU instrument suite consists of three different Langmuir-type probes and a Plasma Impedance Probe (PIP). We first give a brief overview of the instrumentation, and then describe the algorithm used to reduce Langmuir probe I-V curves to plasma parameters. It is shown that the derived temperatures agree well with International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) model, while the derived density matches better with the USU-Global Assimilation of Ionospheric Measurement model. The third paper presents the dataset from the EQUIS II sounding rocket campaign. The rocket payloads carried a PIP, a DCP, and an internally heated Sweeping Langmuir Probe. The ratio of the payload surface area to the cumulative area of the instrument and its guard was about 250. We show that on small sounding rocket payloads the DCP technique of relative electron density measurement is not very accurate. We further show that the ion saturation region analysis of the I-V curve produces absolute ion density that matches very well with the absolute electron density derived from the PIP, and the derived temperatures agree reasonably well with the IRI model.

Rosetta is a European spacecraft that will rendevouz with andfollow the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko from 2014 to 2015. Among other instruments are two Langmuir probes that measure certain plasma parameters. This study aims to describe the photoemssionon Rosetta and in particular on the Langmuir probes. More than 7800 bias voltage sweeps were analyzed and parameters such as photosaturationcurrent, spacecraft potential, photoelectron temperature and offset current were calculated from these sweeps. It is found that the photoemission is stronger on Probe 1 than Probe 2. The photosaturation currents for dierent mission phases align rather well when normalized to distance to the Sun and the solar activity, when correcting for the offset currents found on the probes the alignment became even better. The typical electron density in the photoelectron cloud is 25 cm^-3 at 1 AU and the electron temperature varies from 1 - 2 eV.

Bayreuth, Univ., Diss., 2009

Saturn’s largest moon Titan (2575 km radius) is the second largest in the Solar system. Titan is the only known moon with a fully developed nitrogen-rich atmosphere with ionosphere extending to ~2000 km altitude, hosting complex organic chemistry. One of the main scientific interests of Titan’s atmosphere and ionosphere is the striking similarity to current theories of those of Earth ~3.5 billion years ago. The Cassini spacecraft has been in orbit around Saturn since 2004 and carries a wide range of instruments for investigating Titan’s ionosphere, among them the Langmuir probe, a “space weather station”, manufactured and operated by the Swedish Institute of Space Physics, Uppsala. This thesis reviews the first half of the PhD project on the production of pre-biotic molecules in the atmosphere of Titan and early Earth, focusing on the ion densities and dynamics in Titan’s ionosphere derived from the in-situ measurements by the Cassini Langmuir probe. One of the main results is the detection of significant, up to ~2300 cm-3, charge densities of heavy (up to ~13000 amu) negative ions in Titan’s ionosphere below 1400 km altitude. On the nightside of the ionosphere at altitudes below 1200 km, the heavy negative ion charge densities are comparable to the positive ion densities and are in fact the main negative charge carrier, making this region of the ionosphere exhibit properties of dusty plasma. The overall trend is the exponential increasing of the negative ion charge densities towards lower altitudes. Another important result is the detection of ion drifts that between 880-1100 km altitudes in Titan’s ionosphere translate to neutral winds of 0.5-5.5 km/s. Ion drifts define three regions by altitude, the top layer (above ~1600 km altitude) where the ions are frozen into the background magnetic field, the dynamo region (1100 – 1600 km altitudes) where the ions are drifting in partly opposing directions due to ion-neutral collisions in the presence of the magnetic and electric fields and the bottom layer (below 1100 km altitude) of the ionosphere, where the ions are coupled to neutrals by collisions.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

O crescente número de bactérias resistentes é devido principalmente ao número limitado de modos de ação dos antibióticos, contra os quais bactérias criam mecanismo de resistência. Há, portanto, necessidade de terapias com espectro de ação mais amplo, atingindo diferentes alvos moleculares. A inativação fotodinâmica (IFD) pode ser uma dessas terapias, pois baseia-se na geração de espécies reativas que atacam diversas moléculas, e não um alvo específico. Fotossensibilizadores (FSs) absorvem luz em comprimento de onda específico e a energia absorvida pode ser transferida a um oxigênio molecular, gerando espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs). Tais espécies são altamente citotóxicas e produzem reações de oxidação que levam à morte celular. Um dos alvos das EROs são fosfolipídios insaturados das membranas biológicas. O objetivo desta dissertação é investigar a interação dos FSs curcumina e azul de metileno com fosfolipídios e o efeito da foto-ativação desses FSs em um mimético de membrana bacteriana. Para tanto, foram usados filmes de Langmuir do extrato lipídico de Escherichia coli e dos lipídios sintéticos isolados DOPE, POPG e cardiolipina. As isotermas de pressão com o extrato de E coli indicam interação entre os FSs e os lipídios do filme, aumentando a área ocupada. A irradiação do filme na presença de curcumina aumenta sua estabilidade, o que sugere formação de hidroperóxidos de lipídio, mais hidrofílicos, pela ação do oxigênio singleto. Nos filmes dos lipídios isolados só a curcumina é incorporada, havendo aumento na área ocupada pelo filme, e redução no potencial de superfície. Nenhum efeito decorrente da irradiação desses filmes foi detectado. Um filme Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) de extrato de E. coli com curcumina foi submetido a quatro ciclos de fotoclareamento seguido de recuperação da fluorescência visualizados num microscópio confocal. A intensidade da fluorescência aumentou após o primeiro ciclo, indicativo de mudança conformacional para alocar maior quantidade de curcumina, o que corrobora a hipótese da formação de hidroperóxidos. / The growing number of resistant bacteria is mainly due to the limited number of modes of action of antibiotics, against which bacteria create resistance. There is, therefore, a need for therapies with broader action spectrum, reaching different molecular targets. Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) may be one of these therapies, because it is based on the generation of reactive species that attack several molecules, not a specific target. Photosensitizers (FSs) absorb light at a specific wavelength and the absorbed energy can be transferred to a molecular oxygen, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS). Such species are highly cytotoxic and produce oxidation reactions that lead to cell death. One of the targets of ROS are unsaturated phospholipids from biological membranes. The objective of this dissertation is to investigate the interaction of the FSs curcumin and methylene blue with phospholipids and the effect of photoactivation of these FSs on a bacterial membrane mimetic. For this purpose, Langmuir films of the lipid extract of Escherichia coli and the synthetic lipids DOPE, POPG and cardiolipin were used. The surface pressure isotherms with the E. coli extract indicate interaction between the FSs and the lipids of the film, increasing the occupied area. The irradiation of the film in the presence of curcumin increases its stability, which suggests the formation of more hydrophilic lipid hydroperoxides by the action of singlet oxygen. In the synthetic lipid films only curcumin is incorporated, with increase in the area occupied by the film, and reduction in surface potential. No effect from irradiation of these films was detected. A Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) film of E. coli extract with curcumin was submitted to four cycles of photobleaching followed by fluorescence recovery visualized in a confocal microscope. The intensity of the fluorescence increased after the first cycle, indicative of conformational change to allocate a larger amount of curcumin, which corroborates the hypothesis of hydroperoxide formation.