abstract: This study examines changing language loyalties of the sociopolitically most dominant ethnic group in Indonesia, the Javanese. Although Javanese language has the largest number of speakers, within the last five decades the language is gradually losing its speakers who prioritize the national language, Indonesian. This phenomenon led me to inquire into the extent to which their native language matters for their Javanese identity and how the language planning and policy (LPP) mechanism works to foster Javanese language. To collect data, I conducted a six-month ethnographic research project in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The findings show that Javanese language shift occurs because of strong supports from the government toward Indonesian by emphasizing its role as a symbol to unify all ethnic groups in Indonesia into one nation. Consequently, interference in intergenerational language transmission, a limited scope of Javanese use, decrease language competence, and negative attitude toward Javanese are evident. Although Javanese language is still perceived as the most profound marker of Javanese identity, it is now challenging to maintain it because of its limited role in most domains. The study also indicates that the Javanese people are now strongly inclined to Islam reflected by their piety to Islamic rules such as positive attitude to learn liturgic Arabic, to leave behind Javanese tradition not in line with Islam, and to view religion as a panacea to heal social problems. This high regard for Islam is also evident in schools. Furthermore, the Javanese people value highly English although nobody uses it as a medium of daily communication. However, the fact that English is tested in the secondary education national exams and the university entrance exam makes it necessary for people to learn it. In addition, English is regarded as a modern, intellectual, and elite language. In short, the Javanese people perceive English as an avenue to achieve academic and professional success as well as higher social status. Altogether, this study shows that shifting language loyalty among the Javanese people is an indication of societal transformation. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation English 2015

The aim of the study is to provide an account of the present state of Portuguese in the Johannesburg Portuguese community, and to identify factors influencing the maintenance of, and shift from the mother tongue. South African society necessitates a knowledge and daily use of English, and sometimes Afrikaans. Literacy and proficiency in the Portuguese mother tongue is therefore rapidly decreasing, especially amongst the third generation. Despite this decline, certain factors play a role in maintaining Portuguese. The most important factors in the maintenance of the mother tongue are education, cultural activities, contact with Portugal, parental influence and positive attitudes. If measures are not taken, and an awareness created within the community of the need to create a situation of stable bilingualism, the Portuguese language will continue to be eroded. / 0 objectivo desta tese e analisar o nivel actual da lingua portuguesa, na comunidade Portuguesa em Joanesburgo, e identificar os factores que influenciam a manutenc;ao e ou o afastamento da lingua materna. A sociedade sul-africana necessita de urn conhecimento diario da lingua inglesa e, par vezes da lingua afrikaans. Por conseguinte, a capacidade de ler e escrever fluentemente na lingua portuguesa esta rapidamente a desaparecer, especialmente na 3a gerac;ao. Apesar deste declinio, existem ainda determinados factores que contribuem para a sobrevivencia da lingua portuguesa na comunidade. Os factores mais importantes sao: a educac;ao, as actividades culturais, o contacto com Portugal, a influencia familiar - atitudes positivas tomadas pela propria comunidade. Se nao forem criadas medidas pelos portugueses, que garantam a consciencializac; ao da lingua materna e urn determinado bilinguismo, a lingua portuguesa acasani par desaparecer na Africa do Sul. / Linguistics / M.A. (Linguistics)

The aim of the study is to provide an account of the present state of Portuguese in the Johannesburg Portuguese community, and to identify factors influencing the maintenance of, and shift from the mother tongue. South African society necessitates a knowledge and daily use of English, and sometimes Afrikaans. Literacy and proficiency in the Portuguese mother tongue is therefore rapidly decreasing, especially amongst the third generation. Despite this decline, certain factors play a role in maintaining Portuguese. The most important factors in the maintenance of the mother tongue are education, cultural activities, contact with Portugal, parental influence and positive attitudes. If measures are not taken, and an awareness created within the community of the need to create a situation of stable bilingualism, the Portuguese language will continue to be eroded. / 0 objectivo desta tese e analisar o nivel actual da lingua portuguesa, na comunidade Portuguesa em Joanesburgo, e identificar os factores que influenciam a manutenc;ao e ou o afastamento da lingua materna. A sociedade sul-africana necessita de urn conhecimento diario da lingua inglesa e, par vezes da lingua afrikaans. Por conseguinte, a capacidade de ler e escrever fluentemente na lingua portuguesa esta rapidamente a desaparecer, especialmente na 3a gerac;ao. Apesar deste declinio, existem ainda determinados factores que contribuem para a sobrevivencia da lingua portuguesa na comunidade. Os factores mais importantes sao: a educac;ao, as actividades culturais, o contacto com Portugal, a influencia familiar - atitudes positivas tomadas pela propria comunidade. Se nao forem criadas medidas pelos portugueses, que garantam a consciencializac; ao da lingua materna e urn determinado bilinguismo, a lingua portuguesa acasani par desaparecer na Africa do Sul. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / M.A. (Linguistics)

Summaries in English and Greek / Keywords in English and Greek / This thesis explores the phenomenon of language shift and maintenance in the Greek community of Johannesburg, which is the largest Greek community in South Africa. The main aim of the study is to provide an account of the factors which assist in maintaining the Greek language which is under pressure from English, the dominant official language in the country. This study draws on the theoretical and methodological frameworks established in the many studies conducted on the Greek communities in the USA and Australia. The Greek community has played a significant role in assisting to shape the development of South Africa. Up until the 1980s, they were subject to discrimination from the host society; consequently, many immigrants lived together in certain suburbs and founded their own churches, clubs and schools. These factors contributed greatly to the retention of their language and culture. Since the late 1980s, the discriminatory attitude of the host society toward the immigrant communities has decreased notably, and subsequently, there has been an increased integration and assimilation into the host society. The process of assimilation has resulted, inter alia, in an increased use of English, the dominant language of the host society, consequently the retention of the mother tongue has declined. A number of factors were identified as playing an important role in the maintenance of Greek: education, religion, family, language loyalty and socio-cultural activities; and, to a lesser extent, media and overseas visits. Education has played a key role in maintaining the language, in particular through the establishment of Greek day and afternoon schools. Despite a preference for bilingual church services, the Greek Orthodox Church continues to play a vital role in the maintenance of Greek. The family, loyalty towards the language and culture and a notable pride in being Greek, and participation in socio-cultural activities contribute significantly to the maintenance of the Greek language. Despite a marked shift towards English in the younger generation, the future of Greek in South Africa may be characterized by relatively stable bilingualism, provided that current trends continue. / Η παροφςα μελζτθ πραγματεφεται το φαινόμενο τθσ αλλαγισ και διατιρθςθσ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ ςτθν ελλθνικι κοινότθτα του Γιοχάνεςμπουργκ, θ οποία αποτελεί τθν μεγαλφτερθ κοινότθτα ςτο Γιοχάνεςμπουργκ. Ο κφριοσ ςκοπόσ τθσ διατριβισ, είναι να παρουςιάςει τουσ παράγοντεσ που ςυμβάλλουν ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ, θ οποία καταπιζηεται γλωςςικά από τθν Αγγλικι, τθν κυρίαρχθ και επίςθμθ γλϊςςα τθσ χϊρασ. Η μελζτθ αυτι αντλεί τουσ κεωρθτικοφσ και μεκοδολογικοφσ τθσ άξονεσ από τισ διάφορεσ μελζτεσ που ωσ αντικείμενό τουσ ζχουν τθν μελζτθ των ελλθνικϊν κοινοτιτων ςτισ Ηνωμζνεσ Πολιτείεσ και ςτθν Αυςτραλία. Η Ελλθνικι κοινότθτα ζχει παίξει ςθμαντικό υποβοθκθτικό ρόλο ςτθν πορεία τθσ εξζλιξθσ τθσ Νότιασ Αφρικισ. Μζχρι το 1980 ιταν αντικείμενο φυλετικισ διάκριςθσ από τθ χϊρα υποδοχισ με αποτζλεςμα πολλοί μετανάςτεσ να ηουν ομαδικά ςε ςυγκεκριμζνεσ περιοχζσ, ιδρφοντασ τισ δικζσ τουσ εκκλθςίεσ, ςυλλόγουσ και ςχολεία. Οι προαναφερόμενοι παράγοντεσ ςυνζβαλαν αιςκθτά ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ και του ελλθνικοφ πολιτιςμοφ. Από τα τζλθ του 1980, θ πολιτικι διακρίςεων λόγω φυλετικισ καταγωγισ από τθ χϊρα υποδοχισ προσ τισ μεταναςτευτικζσ ομάδεσ ζχει μειωκεί αιςκθτά ενϊ μετζπειτα παρατθρείται μια αυξθμζνθ ενςωμάτωςθ και αφομοίωςθ ςτθν χϊρα-οικοδεςπότθσ. Η διαδικαςία ενςωμάτωςθσ ςυντζλεςε, inter alia, ςτθν αφξθςθ τθσ χριςθσ τθσ αγγλικισ γλϊςςασ, τθν κυρίαρχθ γλϊςςα τθσ χϊρασ υποδοχισ με αποτζλεςμα να μειϊνεται θ διατιρθςθ τθσ μθτρικισ γλϊςςασ. Αναγνωρίςτθκε ζνασ αρικμόσ παραγόντων με ςθμαντικό ρόλο ωσ προσ τθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ: θ παιδεία, θ κρθςκεία, θ οικογζνεια, θ αφοςίωςθ ςτθ γλϊςςα και οι κοινωνικό-πολιτιςμικζσ δραςτθριότθτεσ ενϊ ςε μικρότερο ποςοςτό, τα μαηικά μζςα και οι διεκνείσ επιςκζψεισ. Η εκπαίδευςθ ζχει παίξει ςθμαντικό ρόλο ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ ιδιαίτερα μζςω τθσ ίδρυςθσ ελλθνικϊν θμεριςιων και απογευματινϊν ςχολείων. Η Ελλθνικι Ορκόδοξθ Εκκλθςία ςυνεχίηει να παίηει ουςιϊδθ ρόλο ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ παρότι υπάρχει μια προτίμθςθ για τισ δίγλωςςεσ εκκλθςιαςτικζσ λειτουργίεσ. Η οικογζνεια, θ αφοςίωςθ ςτθν γλϊςςα και ςτον πολιτιςμό, θ εμφανισ υπερθφάνεια ωσ προσ τθν ελλθνικι ταυτότθτα και θ ςυμμετοχι ςε κοινωνικό-πολιτιςμικζσ δραςτθριότθτεσ επίςθσ ςυμβάλλουν αιςκθτά ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ. Παρόλο το φαινόμενο τθσ γλωςςικισ αλλαγισ προσ τθν αγγλικι γλϊςςα από τθ νεότερθ γενεά, το μζλλον τθσ ελλθνικισ ςτθ Νότια Αφρικι μπορεί να χαρακτθριςτεί από μια ςτακερι διγλωςςία, υπό τθν προχπόκεςθ ότι κα ςυνεχιςτοφν οι τρζχουςεσ τάςεισ. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

Summaries in English and Greek / Keywords in English and Greek / This thesis explores the phenomenon of language shift and maintenance in the Greek community of Johannesburg, which is the largest Greek community in South Africa. The main aim of the study is to provide an account of the factors which assist in maintaining the Greek language which is under pressure from English, the dominant official language in the country. This study draws on the theoretical and methodological frameworks established in the many studies conducted on the Greek communities in the USA and Australia. The Greek community has played a significant role in assisting to shape the development of South Africa. Up until the 1980s, they were subject to discrimination from the host society; consequently, many immigrants lived together in certain suburbs and founded their own churches, clubs and schools. These factors contributed greatly to the retention of their language and culture. Since the late 1980s, the discriminatory attitude of the host society toward the immigrant communities has decreased notably, and subsequently, there has been an increased integration and assimilation into the host society. The process of assimilation has resulted, inter alia, in an increased use of English, the dominant language of the host society, consequently the retention of the mother tongue has declined. A number of factors were identified as playing an important role in the maintenance of Greek: education, religion, family, language loyalty and socio-cultural activities; and, to a lesser extent, media and overseas visits. Education has played a key role in maintaining the language, in particular through the establishment of Greek day and afternoon schools. Despite a preference for bilingual church services, the Greek Orthodox Church continues to play a vital role in the maintenance of Greek. The family, loyalty towards the language and culture and a notable pride in being Greek, and participation in socio-cultural activities contribute significantly to the maintenance of the Greek language. Despite a marked shift towards English in the younger generation, the future of Greek in South Africa may be characterized by relatively stable bilingualism, provided that current trends continue. / Η παροφςα μελζτθ πραγματεφεται το φαινόμενο τθσ αλλαγισ και διατιρθςθσ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ ςτθν ελλθνικι κοινότθτα του Γιοχάνεςμπουργκ, θ οποία αποτελεί τθν μεγαλφτερθ κοινότθτα ςτο Γιοχάνεςμπουργκ. Ο κφριοσ ςκοπόσ τθσ διατριβισ, είναι να παρουςιάςει τουσ παράγοντεσ που ςυμβάλλουν ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ, θ οποία καταπιζηεται γλωςςικά από τθν Αγγλικι, τθν κυρίαρχθ και επίςθμθ γλϊςςα τθσ χϊρασ. Η μελζτθ αυτι αντλεί τουσ κεωρθτικοφσ και μεκοδολογικοφσ τθσ άξονεσ από τισ διάφορεσ μελζτεσ που ωσ αντικείμενό τουσ ζχουν τθν μελζτθ των ελλθνικϊν κοινοτιτων ςτισ Ηνωμζνεσ Πολιτείεσ και ςτθν Αυςτραλία. Η Ελλθνικι κοινότθτα ζχει παίξει ςθμαντικό υποβοθκθτικό ρόλο ςτθν πορεία τθσ εξζλιξθσ τθσ Νότιασ Αφρικισ. Μζχρι το 1980 ιταν αντικείμενο φυλετικισ διάκριςθσ από τθ χϊρα υποδοχισ με αποτζλεςμα πολλοί μετανάςτεσ να ηουν ομαδικά ςε ςυγκεκριμζνεσ περιοχζσ, ιδρφοντασ τισ δικζσ τουσ εκκλθςίεσ, ςυλλόγουσ και ςχολεία. Οι προαναφερόμενοι παράγοντεσ ςυνζβαλαν αιςκθτά ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ και του ελλθνικοφ πολιτιςμοφ. Από τα τζλθ του 1980, θ πολιτικι διακρίςεων λόγω φυλετικισ καταγωγισ από τθ χϊρα υποδοχισ προσ τισ μεταναςτευτικζσ ομάδεσ ζχει μειωκεί αιςκθτά ενϊ μετζπειτα παρατθρείται μια αυξθμζνθ ενςωμάτωςθ και αφομοίωςθ ςτθν χϊρα-οικοδεςπότθσ. Η διαδικαςία ενςωμάτωςθσ ςυντζλεςε, inter alia, ςτθν αφξθςθ τθσ χριςθσ τθσ αγγλικισ γλϊςςασ, τθν κυρίαρχθ γλϊςςα τθσ χϊρασ υποδοχισ με αποτζλεςμα να μειϊνεται θ διατιρθςθ τθσ μθτρικισ γλϊςςασ. Αναγνωρίςτθκε ζνασ αρικμόσ παραγόντων με ςθμαντικό ρόλο ωσ προσ τθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ: θ παιδεία, θ κρθςκεία, θ οικογζνεια, θ αφοςίωςθ ςτθ γλϊςςα και οι κοινωνικό-πολιτιςμικζσ δραςτθριότθτεσ ενϊ ςε μικρότερο ποςοςτό, τα μαηικά μζςα και οι διεκνείσ επιςκζψεισ. Η εκπαίδευςθ ζχει παίξει ςθμαντικό ρόλο ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ ιδιαίτερα μζςω τθσ ίδρυςθσ ελλθνικϊν θμεριςιων και απογευματινϊν ςχολείων. Η Ελλθνικι Ορκόδοξθ Εκκλθςία ςυνεχίηει να παίηει ουςιϊδθ ρόλο ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ γλϊςςασ παρότι υπάρχει μια προτίμθςθ για τισ δίγλωςςεσ εκκλθςιαςτικζσ λειτουργίεσ. Η οικογζνεια, θ αφοςίωςθ ςτθν γλϊςςα και ςτον πολιτιςμό, θ εμφανισ υπερθφάνεια ωσ προσ τθν ελλθνικι ταυτότθτα και θ ςυμμετοχι ςε κοινωνικό-πολιτιςμικζσ δραςτθριότθτεσ επίςθσ ςυμβάλλουν αιςκθτά ςτθ διατιρθςθ τθσ ελλθνικισ γλϊςςασ. Παρόλο το φαινόμενο τθσ γλωςςικισ αλλαγισ προσ τθν αγγλικι γλϊςςα από τθ νεότερθ γενεά, το μζλλον τθσ ελλθνικισ ςτθ Νότια Αφρικι μπορεί να χαρακτθριςτεί από μια ςτακερι διγλωςςία, υπό τθν προχπόκεςθ ότι κα ςυνεχιςτοφν οι τρζχουςεσ τάςεισ. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)