This dissertation consists of three separate, but inter-related, studies overarching a common theme labeled "the role played by social and environmental accounting disclosures using different methodologies and framed within legitimacy theory." The first study investigates the use of different language techniques in social and environmental disclosures (SED) and tests whether the impression management hypothesis holds when disclosures are measured as such. The second study extends the "legitimacy on the Internet" arguments of Patten and Crampton (2004) by examining the content and presentation of corporate website environmental disclosure in relation to firm environmental performance of four size-matched sample groups constructed based on industry environmental sensitivity and America's Toxic 100 membership (the top 100 polluters in the US). The third study investigates whether and how Total, one of the world's largest integrated oil and gas companies headquartered in France, utilized legitimation strategies such as social and environmental disclosures, to respond to two significant environmental incidents. Taken together, these three studies build upon prior theoretical and empirical work to substantiate and advance social and environmental accounting research using various methodological lenses and perspectives.

Digitalisering anses vara den enskilt största förändringsfaktorn i världen och har medfört betydande utveckling i samhället. Den svenska arbetsmarknaden har påverkats i stor utsträckning av digitaliseringen, då den lett till radikala förändringar för organisationer samt yrkesroller, däribland redovisningskonsulter. Tidigare forskning redogör för att digitalisering medfört både möjligheter och utmaningar för redovisningsbranschen. Studiens huvudsakliga syfte är att undersöka hur digitalisering inom redovisningsbranschen påverkar redovisningskonsulters yrkesroll. Studiens avsikt är att bidra till ökad förståelse för den inverkan digitaliseringen har haft på redovisningskonsulters verksamheter, arbetssätt, arbetsuppgifter samt kompetenser och därmed vilka möjligheter respektive utmaningar som uppkommit för yrkesrollen. Studien utgår ifrån en kvalitativ metod där 14 semistrukturerade intervjuer med redovisningskonsulter från diverse byråer har utförts. Det empiriskt insamlade materialet har jämförts med institutionell teori och legitimitetsteori samt tidigare forskning för att nå en slutsats. Studiens slutsats är att digitaliseringen har medfört en rad olika möjligheter samt utmaningar kopplade till redovisningskonsulters arbetssätt, arbetsuppgifter, kompetenser samt deras verksamheter. Ett förslag till vidare forskning inkluderar att studera förändringen digitaliseringen har haft på redovisningskonsultens yrkesroll över tid. Studien är skriven på svenska. / Digitalization is considered to be one of the most significant advancements in modern society. The Swedish labor market has been greatly impacted by the radical changes brought forth by digitalization as it continues to shape processes within organizations and professional roles, particularly in the field of accounting. This study aims to investigate the impact of digitalization in the accounting industry and its effects on the role of accounting consultants. The study also seeks to further the understanding of existing literature and their explorations of how digitalization influences the work procedures, job assignments, and competencies of accounting consultants' and their companies. In addition, data gathered during this study will evaluate any challenges highlighted by digitalization within the accounting profession. The study will utilize qualitative research methods by analysis of 14 semi-structured interviews. The participants of the interviews include accounting consultants from various agencies in Sweden. Empirically gathered material will be compared to institutional theory and legitimacy theory along with previous research to reach a conclusion. The study concludes that digitalization has resulted in various opportunities and challenges linked to accounting consultants' work procedures, job assignments, competencies, and operations. A suggestion for further research includes studying the change digitalization has had on the accounting consultant's professional role over a period of time. This study is written in Swedish.

Bakgrund & Problem: Företag idag ställs inför nya krav om socialt- och miljömässigt ansvar och bedöms utefter deras förmåga att uppfylla dessa. Därmed har kommunikation och redovisning genom hållbarhetsrapporten blivit viktig. Om företagets CSR arbete och sociala ansvar överensstämmer med samhällets förväntningar kan företaget ses som legitim, men om dessa förväntningar inte efterlevs kan legitimiteten istället påverkas negativt. Företag använder sig utav kommunikationsstrategier för att legitimera sitt agerande och därmed är hållbarhetsredovisningen problematisk då den inte kan anses vara ett svar på att företaget uppfyller sin ansvarsskyldighet. Ytterligare problem med hållbarhetsredovisningen är att den utelämnar information som är betydelsefull för intressenterna. Syfte: Studiens syfte är att öka kunskapen för mottagare av företagens hållbarhetsrapporter så de kan fatta beslut om företaget på ett mer kritiskt sätt. Metod: I denna studie används en kvalitativ metod genom att en innehållsanalys genomförs av fem företags hållbarhetsrapporter. Vidare används en kvantitativ metod för att genomföra frekvensanalys av företagets intressenter. Resultat: Resultatet visar att strategier för att behålla legitimitet används både innan och efterskandal, medan strategier för att reparera legitimiteten används efter skandal. Mer exakt är det behålla legitimitet på ett pragmatiskt sätt och reparera legitimitet på ett moraliskt sätt som är de mest använda strategierna i hållbarhetsredovisningarna. Därutöver visas även en koppling mellan pragmatisk legitimitet och de interna intressenterna. / Background and problem: Nowadays companies need to face the new requirement of social- and environmental responsibility and are assessed by how they fulfill these demands. Because of this communication and accounting through sustainability reports have been important. If the company's CSR work and social responsibility are in line with society's expectations it can be considered legitim, if the expectations do not comply the legitimacy of the company will drop. Consequently, companies use communication strategies to legitimize their actions, and because of this sustainability reporting can’t be seen as a way of transparency. Furthermore, sustainability reporting does omit information that is significant to its stakeholders.  Aim: The study aims to increase the knowledge of sustainability reports for receivers of the report to make better and more critical decisions.  Method: This study was conducted in a qualitative method, a content analysis was performed on five companies' sustainability reports. Moreover, a quantitative method was used for the frequency analysis of the company's stakeholders.  Conclusion: The result shows that strategies to maintain legitimacy are used both before and after the scandal, while strategies to repair legitimacy are used after the scandal. More precisely, maintaining legitimacy pragmatically and repairing legitimacy morally are the most used strategies in sustainability reporting. In addition, a connection between pragmatic legitimacy and the internal stakeholders is also shown.

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This thesis sets out to examine whether there is a relationship between financial performance and CSR in fashion companies. Furthermore, there are significant regional differences in different markets; for instance, the European Union aims to counter the negative impact of fast fashion as part of a grander plan to become climate neutral by 2050. Therefore, a regional comparison is of particular interest as environmental regulations are increasing. Since the USA and the EU are home to the largest and most valuable brands to date, these regions will be examined in this thesis. This relationship is measured by using ESG scores as a proxy for CSR. The results stipulate that the relationship between financial performance and CSR activities is weak. Nevertheless, regional context is found to be a significant moderator variable in this relationship. The results indicate that CSR practices are more important in terms of financial performance in the EU.

Yes / Irrespective of the fundamental role of legitimacy in industrial relations as well as social and organisational life, little is known of the subtle meaning-making strategies through which organisational concepts, such as employment relations and engagement, are legitimised in modern world of work, particularly in developing countries such as Nigeria, which results in managerial capture. As a result, this paper explores the discursive legitimisation strategies used when making sense of employment relations in Nigeria’s conflictual, non-participatory employment relations terrain. Relying on Leeuwen’s (1995) legitimisation strategies, critical discourse analysis (CDA) and call by Bailey, Luck & Townsend (2009) and Legge (1995) to widen employment relations discourse, we explore interview, focus group and shadow report data, and distinguish and analyse five legitimisation strategies. The strategies include authorisation, moralisation, mythopoesis, rationalisation, and management. Therefore, we contend that while these specific legitimisation strategies appear in separate data source, their recurrent manifestation and application underscores legitimising discourse of managerial capture in Nigeria’s employment relations.

Forskningsfrågor: - Hur har förändringar inom redovisningsprofessionen påverkat vad som anses vara en legitim redovisningskonsult?- Hur arbetar redovisningskonsulter för att etablera och bevara sin legitimitet?- Hur väl representerar auktorisationen legitimiteten av dagens redovisningskonsult? Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka vad som utgör en legitim redovisningskonsult i dagens arbetsklimat, vad förändringen har haft för påverkan och hur väl auktorisationen representerar det legitima anseendet.   Metod: En kvalitativ metod i form av semistrukturerade intervjuer har genomförts, urvalet bestod av redovisningskonsulter som uppfyller kraven för att bli auktoriserade.    Slutsats:  Studien visar att redovisningskonsulter arbetar aktivt för att signalera ut ett legitimt anseende samt sociala och samarbetsvilliga förmågor är det som utgör en legitim redovisningskonsult på grund av förändringar i arbetsklimatet. Arbetar redovisningskonsulten för en väletablerad redovisningsbyrå kommer det att få en påverkan på den individuella redovisningskonsulten. Kunder tenderar att anlita redovisningsbyråer och inte individen. Auktorisationen anses som en kvalitetsstämpel internt inom redovisningsbranschen men externt är det en okunskap kring vad auktorisationen innebär och därmed efterfrågas den inte. / Research questions: - How have changes in the accounting profession affected what is considered a legitimate accounting consultant?- How do accounting consultants work to establish and maintain their legitimacy?- How well does the authorization represent the legitimacy of today's accounting consultant? Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate what constitutes a legitimate accounting consultant in today's work climate, what impact the change has had and how well the authorization represents the legitimate reputation.   Method: A qualitative method in the form of semi-structured interviews has been carried out, the sample consisted of accounting consultants who meet the requirements to become authorized.    Conclusion:  The study shows that accounting consultants work actively to signal a legitimate reputation and social and cooperative abilities are what make up a legitimate accounting consultant due to changes in the work climate. If the accounting consultant works for a well-established accounting firm, it will have an impact on the individual accounting consultant. Clients tend to hire accounting firms and not the individual. The authorization is considered a quality seal internally within the accounting industry, but externally there is a lack of knowledge of what the authorization entails and thus it is not in demand.

Bankruptcies define the ending of a firm and they have been increasing in recent years. Because of the tantalizing consequences bankruptcy gives rise to, it is in numerous parties’ interest to mitigate the risks. Several factors such as liquidity, leverage and profitability have an impact on the financial health of firms. With rise in interest and directive for sustainability and investing responsibly, higher ESG scores have shown to deliver benefits such as decreased bankruptcy risk. Europe is in the lead in sustainability practices and an essential sector for the European market is manufacturing which constitutes a significant part of the continent’s GDP. This sector is particularly sensitive to supply chains and is under increasing scrutiny from regulation and investors. This gave rise to the first purpose of this study which was to examine if it is worth investing in ESG to minimize the risk of bankruptcy for European manufacturers. ESG performance was measured through Refinitiv Eikon’s ESG and pillar scores, while bankruptcy risk was measured through Altman Z-score. By looking at which individual pillars of ESG had the largest and smallest impact on bankruptcy risk, the study’s second purpose could be fulfilled. To conduct the study, 804 firms were studied over a 10-year period between 2013-2022, which resulted in 4,143 firm year observations. All analyses were done with four separate fixed effect regressions, controlling for both macroeconomic-, financial-, market- and size-related variables. The results regarding the first purpose showed that the aggregate ESG score had a negative relationship with bankruptcy risk, which goes to show that increased investing in ESG activities can enhance firm stabilization among European manufacturers. Regarding the second research purpose, the regression results showed that the social dimension had the only significant impact in reducing bankruptcy risk. While the other pillars displayed similar directions, it was not possible to conclude on a relationship between the independent governance or environmental pillar score and bankruptcy risk. However, since the environmental and governance pillars are a part of the aggregate ESG score, the results still imply that the interplay of all the individual pillars can bring stability to firms. As such, the results showed support for two of the theories applied in the study, stakeholder and legitimacy theory, while contradicting the shareholder and agency theory. It is not merely the shareholder profit but rather the stakeholders’ interests that contributes European manufacturers staying afloat. ESG can thus be seen as a way to obtain legitimacy and build the firm stronger, rather than an occurring agency cost between agents and principals.

Datum: 2024-05-29 Nivå: Kandidatuppsats i Företagsekonomi, 15 hp  Institution: Akademin för Ekonomi, Samhälle och Teknik, Mälardalens Universitet  Författare: Maja Gustafsson Linnéa Jacobsson Matilda Rasmus  Titel: Frivillig hållbarhetsredovisning hos företag noterade på Stockholmsbörsen - En kvantitativ studie utifrån legitimitets- och intressentteorin.  Handledare: Dariusz Osowski Nyckelord: Hållbarhetsrapportering, CSR, GRI, legitimitetsteorin, intressentteorin. Forskningsfrågor: - Vilka samband finns det mellan finansiella faktorer och att frivilligt hållbarhetsredovisa hos företag som är noterade på Stockholmsbörsen? - Vilka samband finns det mellan icke-finansiella faktorer och att frivilligt hållbarhetsredovisa hos företag som är noterade på Stockholmsbörsen? Syfte: Syftet med denna kandidatuppsats är att hypotespröva samband mellan faktorerna företagsstorlek, lönsamhet, extern granskning av intressenter, rykteshantering och att frivilligt hållbarhetsredovisa.  Metod: Studien tillämpar en kvantitativ multimetod med en deduktiv ansats. Datainsamlingen genomfördes med hjälp av en enkätundersökning för att samla in primärdata. Sekundärdata samlades in genom databasen Retriever Business. I den teoretiska referensramen har relevanta vetenskapliga artiklar och annan litteratur använts. Slutsats: Studien finner ett positivt samband mellan frivillig hållbarhetsredovisning och de finansiella faktorerna, storlek och lönsamhet. Sambandet med lönsamhet är svagt. Resultatet visar även ett positivt samband mellan frivillig hållbarhetsredovisning och de icke-finansiella faktorerna, extern granskning av intressenter och rykteshantering. Företagsledningen och styrelsen i företag noterade på Stockholmsbörsen kan ha användning av studien, för att hållbarhetsredovisning är en del av en företagsstrategi. Studien visar samband mellan faktorer och hållbarhetsredovisning som kan vara till användning i strategin. / Date: 2024-05-29 Level: Bachelor thesis in Business Administration, 15 cr  Institution: School of Business, Society and Engineering, Mälardalen University  Authors: Maja Gustafsson Linnéa Jacobsson Matilda Rasmus Title: Voluntary sustainability reporting for companies listed on the StockholmStock Exchange - A quantitative study based on legitimacy- and stakeholdertheory. Supervisor: Dariusz Osowski Keywords: Sustainability reporting, CSR, GRI, legitimacy theory, stakeholder theory. Research questions: - What causality is there between financial factors and voluntary sustainabilityreporting by companies that are listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange? - What causality is there between non-financial factors and voluntary sustainabilityreporting by companies that are listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange? Purpose: The purpose of this master's thesis is to hypothesis test the relationship between the factors size, profitability, external scrutiny by stakeholders, reputation management and to voluntarily report on sustainability. Method: The study applies a quantitative multi-method with a deductive approach. Data collection was conducted using a questionnaire survey to collect primary data. Secondary data was collected through the Retriever Business database. In the theoretical frame of reference, relevant scientific articles and other literature have been used. Conclusion: The study finds a positive relationship between voluntary sustainability reporting and the financial factors, size and profitability. The connection with profitability is weak. The result also shows a positive relationship between voluntary sustainability reporting and the non-financial factors, external stakeholder review and reputation management. The company management and the board of companies listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange can use the study, because sustainability reporting is part of a company strategy. The study shows causality between factors and sustainability reporting that can be used in the strategy.

On August 2, 2004, Citigroup traders based in the UK sold short more than $13 billion worth of government bonds only to buy them back seconds later at a profit of about $18.2 million dollars. This strategy was carefully planned, the consequences acknowledged by key participants, and it was profitable to the serious detriment of other market participants. The event is ethically questionable because it violates the spirit of European regulation. The purpose of this study is to investigate disclosures made by and about Citigroup surrounding a regulatory investigation into this short-sale within the contexts of legitimacy and institutional anomie theories.