Bakgrund och problemdiskussion: Efterfrågan på en mer harmoniserad redovisnings- lagstiftning på grund av ökad globalisering och mer fria gränser ledde fram till införandet av IFRS, som implementerades år 2005. IFRS är obligatoriskt för noterade bolag i Sverige, men även onoterade bolag kan välja att frivilligt tillämpa IFRS. K-regelverket infördes i sin helhet år 2014 och sedan dess har större onoterade bolag möjligheten att frivilligt uppgradera sin redovisningsstandard från K3 till IFRS. Syfte: Uppsatsens syfte är att identifiera vilka faktorer som bidrar till att bolag väljer att frivilligt uppgradera sin redovisningsstandard. Metod: Uppsatsen består av två delstudier. Den första delstudien är en kvantitativ studie med en deduktiv forskningsansats och den andra delstudien är en kvalitativ studie med en abduktiv forskningsansats. Att kombinera de två delstudierna möjliggör identifiering av faktorer som studeras genom data från årsredovisningar och utifrån en intervjuserie med ekonomi- eller redovisningsansvariga på åtta bolag. Resultat och slutsatser: Studiens resultat tyder på att det finns vissa faktorer som påverkar bolag att frivilligt uppgradera sin redovisningsstandard. Den första delstudiens resultat visar att storlek och bransch har en påverkan på bolag att frivilligt uppgradera sin redovisningsstandard. Delstudie två visar att flera av första delstudiens faktorer i kombination påverkar bolagens förhållande till att frivilligt uppgradera sin redovisningsstandard, men även att ägarnas preferenser och riskbenägenhet är avgörande. / Background and problem diskussion: The demand for a more harmonized accounting legislation due to increased globalization and more free borders led to the introduction of IFRS, which was implemented in 2005. IFRS are mandatory for listed companies in Sweden, but also unlisted companies may choose to voluntarily adopt IFRS. The K- regulatory framework was introduced in its entirety in 2014 and since then larger unlisted companies has the opportunity to voluntarily upgrade their accounting standard from K3 to IFRS. Purpose: This paper aims to identify the factors contributing to why companies choose to voluntarily upgrade their accounting standard. Method: The thesis consists of two studies. The first study is a quantitative study with a deductive research approach and the second study is a qualitative study with an abductive research approach. Combining the two sub-studies allow identification of factors studied through data from annual reports and factors through a series of interviews with finance or accounting officers of eight companies. Results and conclusions: The study's results suggest that there are certain factors that affect the companies to voluntarily upgrade their accounting standard. The results from the first part of the study show that the size and industry have an impact on companies to voluntarily upgrade their accounting standard. Part two of the study shows that factors from the first part of the study in combination with each other affect companies to voluntarily upgrade their accounting standard, but also that owners' preferences and willingness to take risks is crucial.

This study examines voluntary intellectual capital reporting (ICR) in New Zealand firms' annual reports, with a view to contributing to understanding ICR practice. This study also reflects on content analysis with a view to refining the methodology when applied to investigating ICR.The literature includes widespread claims that intellectual capital (IC) resources are important value drivers and assets, and that IC information should be reported externally. However, complexities relating to identifying IC prevent it from being recognised as an asset under current accounting regulations. Consequently, the traditional financial reporting system is being criticised as out-of-date, giving deficient and irrelevant information, and having lost its value relevance. Numerous scholars have investigated voluntary ICR in several countries, but have presented different results and findings. The literature argues that the results of many ICR studies cannot be meaningfully compared because inconsistent data collection instruments have been applied. To advance ICR research, further refining and developing of the methodology is advocated; problems relating to applying methodological issues need to be resolved. Moreover, to establish consensus about ICR, more research and evidence is needed concerning exactly what and how IC is reported.The 2004 annual reports of the 30 largest (by market capitalisation) New Zealand firms listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchange were analysed. Content analysis was applied to determine what and how IC is reported. Inferences about what IC is communicated were made based on an analysis of the content of texts and visual representations. To determine how IC is reported, voluntary reporting was categorised according to the form, nature and location of the disclosure. Frequencies of mention were recorded. Hence, each incidence of occurrence was coded and counted.This study reflected on content analysis methodology by searching the literature for guidance on how to apply this approach and how to deal with the challenges and problems it poses. The thesis discusses methodological issues that could be applied differently, and hence hinder the replicability and comparability of ICR studies. Moreover, the ICR literature provided limited guidance about how to deal with methodological challenges and problems, and revealed an absence of explicit recording instructions. Therefore, explicating this study's recording instructions should enhance replicability and comparability of future ICR research and hence further refine the methodology.Some results of this content analysis study disconfirm those of prior research: New Zealand firms show high levels of ICR, the most reported IC category is human capital, and the most reported IC item is employees. In line with prior research, this study showed that most ICR is presented in declarative terms. Moreover, more than one-third of New Zealand firms' ICR is disclosed as pictures. This indicates the importance of pictorial information as a means of reporting IC and the need to include graphics when conducting ICR research. This study's findings also indicate a narrative approach, similar to the European notion of story telling, to voluntarily report IC information. This approach suggests that narratives have possible potential for voluntary ICR, as an approach that departs from a measurement and quantification approach.

Problem & bakgrund: Den grundläggande problematiken med etisk redovisning är att den inte är lagstadgad, därför kan företagen själva styra hur de väljer att redovisa den samt hur de värderar informationen.   Etisk redovisning är ett viktigt och aktuellt ämne som succesivt bör utvecklas i näringslivet. Detta eftersom intressenter har börjat ställa högre krav på företagen att ta sitt miljömässiga, moraliska och etiska ansvar och inte bara fokusera på den ekonomiska aspekten av företaget.   Syfte: Syftet med uppsatsen är förklara vad etisk redovisning är samt att undersöka vilka faktorer som kan påverka hur företag använder sig av etisk redovisning.   Metod: Undersökningen är en litteraturstudie som bygger på en abduktiv forskningsmetod med en kvalitativ ansats.   Resultat & slutsatser: Efter att ha granskat lagar och rekommendationer, den insamlade teoretiska grunden, tidigare forskning och tre olika branscher inom Sverige, textilindustrin, gruvindustrin och konsultbranschen som alla har sina egna risker och krav. Slutsatsen är att de faktorer som påverkar hur företagen redovisar etisk redovisning och varför de gör detta är storleken på företaget, trovärdighet hos intressenterna samt att de andra företagen inom samma bransch väljer att redovisa etisk redovisning likvärdigt det största företaget inom branschen. Det sista målet med uppsatsen var att ta reda på vad etisk redovisning är. Etisk redovisning är en icke-finansiell redovisning som företag väljer att redovisa frivilligt för att skapa förtroende hos intressenter. Med icke-finansiell redovisning menas frivillig information som inte anses mätbar i pengar som visar hur företaget arbetar på ett etiskt och moraliskt sätt för att exempelvis förbättra arbetsvillkoren för sina anställda. / Problem & Background: The fundamental problem of ethical accounting is that it is not statutory, thereby allows companies to control how they choose to present it and how they value the information. Ethical accounting is an important and timely subject, which should gradually become more important in business. This is because stakeholders have begun to place greater demands on the companies to take their environmental, moral and ethical responsibility, and not just focus on the financial aspect of the company.   Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to explain what ethical accounting is and to investigate the factors that can influence how companies choose to use ethical reporting.   Method: The study is a literature study that is based on an abductive research method with a qualitative approach.   Results & Conclusions: After reviewing laws and recommendations, the collected theoretical basis, previous research and three different industries in Sweden, the textile industry, mining and consulting industry who all have their own risks and requirements. The conclusion is that the factors affecting how companies report ethical accounting and why they do this is the size of the company, credibility with stakeholders and the other companies within the same industry chooses to report ethical accounting equivalent to the largest company in the industry. The last objective of this thesis was to find out what ethical accounting is. Ethical accounting is a non -financial reporting that companies choose to report voluntarily to build trust among stakeholders. With non -financial reporting means volunteer information that is not considered measurable in money, that shows how the company operates in an ethical and moral manner, for example to improve working conditions for their employees.

This study examines voluntary intellectual capital reporting (ICR) in New Zealand firms' annual reports, with a view to contributing to understanding ICR practice. This study also reflects on content analysis with a view to refining the methodology when applied to investigating ICR.The literature includes widespread claims that intellectual capital (IC) resources are important value drivers and assets, and that IC information should be reported externally. However, complexities relating to identifying IC prevent it from being recognised as an asset under current accounting regulations. Consequently, the traditional financial reporting system is being criticised as out-of-date, giving deficient and irrelevant information, and having lost its value relevance. Numerous scholars have investigated voluntary ICR in several countries, but have presented different results and findings. The literature argues that the results of many ICR studies cannot be meaningfully compared because inconsistent data collection instruments have been applied. To advance ICR research, further refining and developing of the methodology is advocated; problems relating to applying methodological issues need to be resolved. Moreover, to establish consensus about ICR, more research and evidence is needed concerning exactly what and how IC is reported.The 2004 annual reports of the 30 largest (by market capitalisation) New Zealand firms listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchange were analysed. Content analysis was applied to determine what and how IC is reported. Inferences about what IC is communicated were made based on an analysis of the content of texts and visual representations. To determine how IC is reported, voluntary reporting was categorised according to the form, nature and location of the disclosure. Frequencies of mention were recorded. Hence, each incidence of occurrence was coded and counted.This study reflected on content analysis methodology by searching the literature for guidance on how to apply this approach and how to deal with the challenges and problems it poses. The thesis discusses methodological issues that could be applied differently, and hence hinder the replicability and comparability of ICR studies. Moreover, the ICR literature provided limited guidance about how to deal with methodological challenges and problems, and revealed an absence of explicit recording instructions. Therefore, explicating this study's recording instructions should enhance replicability and comparability of future ICR research and hence further refine the methodology.Some results of this content analysis study disconfirm those of prior research: New Zealand firms show high levels of ICR, the most reported IC category is human capital, and the most reported IC item is employees. In line with prior research, this study showed that most ICR is presented in declarative terms. Moreover, more than one-third of New Zealand firms' ICR is disclosed as pictures. This indicates the importance of pictorial information as a means of reporting IC and the need to include graphics when conducting ICR research. This study's findings also indicate a narrative approach, similar to the European notion of story telling, to voluntarily report IC information. This approach suggests that narratives have possible potential for voluntary ICR, as an approach that departs from a measurement and quantification approach.

(Frågorna gällande hållbarhet har sett mycket förändring sedan dess påbörjande under det sena 1980-talet. En sådan förändring är i Sverige är det lagkrav som trädde i kraft under slutet av 2016, vilket kräver tvingande rapportering av hållbarhetsfrågor i stora svenska företag. Detta är det enda tillägg till denna lag sedan 2005. Tidigare har rapporteringen av dessa frågor till stor del varit på frivillig basis, men med införandet av denna lag kommer det bli ett obligatoriskt moment för många företag. Denna studie är longitudinell och använder innehållsanalys för att jämföra rapporter från fyra svenska företag från 2004 och 2016 för att fastställa hur deras rapporter har utvecklats. Huvudsyftet med denna studie är att jämföra innehållet av hållbarhetsrapporter från en tid då rapporteringen var frivillig till att den blivit obligatorisk. Avsikten är att dra slutsatser om vilken effekt lagen har på företags hållbarhetsrapporter. Studien drar slutsatserna att alla dessa stora företag uppfyllde kraven för respektive lagstiftningsändringar året innan de trädde i kraft. Det största företaget uppfyller även kraven för lagen från 2016 under 2004. Samtliga företags rapporter har haft en märkbar utveckling vad gäller omfattning och innehåll. Den minst utvecklade kategorin är Risk och Riskhantering. Legitimitetsteori och institutionell teori fungerar som förklaring till hur och vad företag rapporterar i sina hållbarhetsrapporter samt varför lagkraven uppfylls redan innan de har trätt i kraft. Studien visar att lagen är bristfällig i jämförelse med andra standarder för frivillig rapportering, dock har även de frivilliga standarderna svagheter. Sammanfattningsvis konstaterar studien att det sätt företag rapporterar på och använder sig av hållbarhetsrapportering, har format lagen, inte tvärtom. Strävan efter legitimitet är en starkt drivande faktor för formen och innehåll av hållbarhetsrapporter. / The issues regarding sustainability have seen much change since its inception in the late 1980s. One such change in Sweden is the law put into effect in late 2016 which calls for the mandatory reporting of sustainability issues in large Swedish companies. This is the only addition to this law regarding sustainability since 2005. Previously the reporting of these issues has been largely on a voluntary basis, with the passing of this law however it will be a mandatory element for many companies. This study is longitudinal and uses content analysis to compare reports from four Swedish companies from 2004 and 2016 to determine how their reporting has evolved. The main purpose of this paper is to compare the contents of sustainability reports from a time when the reporting was voluntary to when it has become mandatory. The intention is to draw conclusions regarding the effect the law has on companies’ sustainability reports. The study concludes that all of these large companies met the requirements of the respective law change the year before it came into effect. The two largest companies even met the requirements from the 2016 law in 2004. All of the companies’ reports have seen significant development regarding scope and content and the least developed category is Risk and Risk management. Legitimacy Theory and Institutional Theory work as an explanation for how and what companies report in their sustainability reports. It also explains why the law requirements are met before they are put into effect. The study shows that the law is inadequate compared to voluntary reporting standards, though these also possess some weaknesses. Overall the study finds that the way companies report and use sustainability reporting has shaped the law, not the other way around. They strive for legitimacy is a strong driving factor for the form and content of sustainability reports.

The field of sustainability reporting has been studied for a number of decades but how companies respond to sustainability reporting regulations is still understudied. To lessen the gap, this thesis uses an institutional perspective to analyze how Swedish financial companies respond to the new regulation demanding all larger companies to disclose a sustainability report. The thesis takes a qualitative approach by conducting interviews at seven companies to investigate how institutional elements influences their sustainability disclosure processes. Findings show that the content of the reports is not largely affected due to normative elements providing a higher standard than the regulation demands. The reason for this can to a large extent be explained by the use of accepted frameworks which acts as the norm. The thesis also finds that though the content is not largely affected, the regulation affects the internal processes, requiring companies to examine and evaluate their existing sustainability agendas. The findings provide a complement to existing research that to a large degree consists of quantitative research as it illuminates how companies view their sustainability report and the reasoning for disclosing it. The influence of regulation on sustainability reporting is still an understudied subject and more research is needed to address this gap.

Local Content is an oil sector governance and sustainability policy that aims at check-mating the dominance of the foreign oil companies in host countries, and encouraging the participation of the local oil firms in the petroleum value-chain. It is a burgeoning concept applied in the upstream petroleum contracts in the developing petro states. This study was conducted to examine the local content accounting, accountability and governance of the Nigerian Content Development and Monitoring Board (NCDMB) and the five major International Oil Companies (IOCs) operating in Nigeria (Shell, Chevron, ExxonMobil, Total and Agip). The soft and hard accountability of the two principal actors were determined. The work drew on the Chatham House Guidelines for Good Governance in Emerging Oil and Gas Producers (2013) to derive its conceptual and analytical models. The study used the convergent parallel design and a combination of the three accounting paradigms to draw its conclusions. Thematic analysis, descriptive and inferential statistics including the post hoc Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests with Bonferroni Corrected Alpha, and the logistic regression tests were used. The study also applied the mechanistic content analysis methodology on fifty sustainability reports of the selected IOCs in line with the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) and the International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA) sustainability reporting guidelines. Disclosure index and paired-samples t-test were used to determine the existence and trends in the IOCs’ local content disclosure practices before and after the enactment of the Nigeria’s local content law. The study found the local content policy to be an accountabilitybased sustainability driver in the Nigerian petroleum sector. Although the NCDMB’s performance was favourable to a large extent, the study found that corruption, fronting, and non-disclosure of the beneficial ownership of some oil firms remained the major challenges of local content in Nigeria. An expectation gap between the Board and the stakeholders on the financial accountability was established. The study found moderate and consistent local content disclosure indices of the periods before and after the Nigeria’s local content law, but higher volumetric disclosure in the period after the law, signifying likely impact of the local content law on the IOC’s voluntary disclosure. It was recommended that the Board should tighten up its regulatory responsibilities and avoid questionable practices. It was also suggested that the Nigerian local content rules should incorporate more incentives such as unringfencing and crossfencing of upstream costs to encourage more investment. The study also suggested that the accounting standard-setting bodies should issue dedicated accounting standards or expand the existing IFRS 8 and IAS 21 to comprehensively address the preparation and presentation of local content information in the annual financial statements.

In society, intellectual capital (IC) is considered to be necessary in order to create value in organizations. The interest has expanded from private to public organizations such as universities. However, there is still a relatively small amount of research about IC reporting in universities, despite the importance of IC in universities. Previous research does not either consider different university characteristics, something that can help in the development of a common framework for IC reporting. The purpose with this study is to explore and explain howdifferent universities report on IC information in their annual reports in regard to the characteristics size, maturity, type of institution and governmental dependence. The purpose was reached through a multiple case study of eight Swedish universities and a content analysis. The theoretical model was developed through resource based view, knowledge based view, institutional diversity and signaling theory and suggest that internal and external pressures affects the usage of IC assets, strategies and intentions with IC reporting. The results show that all universities report on IC information, to different extent. Relational capital and human capital was the types of IC reported on the most which can be explained by its close connection to the individual, compared to structural capital. The results did not show differences in the IC reporting regarding the different characteristics. However, a contribution of the thesis was the results regarding the IC reporting being integrated in different sections of the annual report, as a part of both strategies and historical performance.

This diploma thesis deals with reporting of sustainability development and its mode of administration of regular reports. The purpose of the first section is to explain, define and describe theoretical and methodological approaches of corporate social responsibility of companies, how they were developed and what are their elementary principles and characteristics. The second section focuses on the analysis of implementation of corporate social responsibility in a concrete company in three areas – economical, social and environmental. The aim of the thesis is to create report about corporate social responsibility and sustainability development, based on acquired information and evaluated analyses.

Syftet med studien har varit att undersöka och analysera hållbarhetsredovisningens förändring samt incitamenten bakom åtagandet av frivillig hållbarhetsredovisning i svenska kommuner. Utgångsläget för studien har varit att förklara hur kommunernas hållbarhetsredovisning har utvecklats och harmoniserats under perioden 2015–2019 samt vilka incitament som ligger bakom kommunernas frivilliga hållbarhetsredovisning. För att besvara studiens syfte och problemformulering har empiri samlats in genom en innehållsanalys av kommunernas hållbarhets- och årsredovisningar samt intervjuer. Innehållsanalysen har utförts på fem svenska kommuner och intervjuer har utförts med tre respondenter från hållbarhetsavdelningar i tre av studiens fem granskade kommuner.   I analysen har insamlad empiri tolkats med hjälp av den teoretiska referensramen, vilken behandlar intressentteorin och legitimitetsteorin. Resultatet påvisar att kommunernas redovisningsform i de frivilliga hållbarhetsredovisningarna har utvecklats genom en övergång till separata hållbarhetsredovisningar. Resultatet konstaterar även att det sker ett skifte i kommunernas tillämpning av redovisningsstandard till att tillämpa SDG som redovisningsstandard i kommunernas hållbarhetsredovisningar. Till följd av övergången till tillämpningen av SDG som redovisningsstandard har antalet upplysta SDG:er ökat i majoriteten av kommunernas hållbarhetsredovisningar. Även upplysningsformen har förändrats genom en ökning av kvantifierade upplysningar, vilka redovisas verbalt i kombination med mätetal. Det framgår även en påtaglig ökning av harmonisering av hållbarhetsredovisning i kommunerna mellan åren 2015–2019. Både den formella och materiella harmoniseringen tilltar. Det primära incitamentet bakom kommunernas frivilliga hållbarhetsredovisning är uppdraget från politikerna som är kommunernas primära intressenter. De sekundära incitamenten framgick att vara påvisande av legitimitet och ansvarsskyldighet. / The purpose of this study was to examine and analyze the change in sustainability reporting as well as the incentives behind the commitment of voluntary sustainability reporting in municipalities. The initial point for the study was to explain how the municipalities' sustainability reports have developed and harmonized during the period 2015–2019 and what incentives are behind the municipalities' voluntary sustainability report. To answer the study's purpose and problem formulation, empirical data have been collected through content analysis of the municipalities' sustainability and annual reports and interviews. The content analysis was conducted in five Swedish municipalities and interviews were conducted with three respondents from sustainability departments in three of the study's five municipalities.   In the analysis, collected empirics have been interpreted with the help of the theoretical framework which deals with stakeholder theory and legitimacy theory. The result shows that the municipalities' form of accounting in the voluntary sustainability reports has been developed through a clear transition to separate sustainability reports. The result also clarifies that there is a shift in the municipalities' application of accounting standard to applying SDG as the accounting standard in the municipalities' sustainability reports. As a result of the transition to the application of SDG as the accounting standard, the number of informed SDGs has increased in the majority of the municipalities' sustainability reports. The form of information has also been changed through an increase in quantified information, which is reported verbally in combination with measurements. There is also a marked increase in the harmonization of sustainability reporting in the municipalities between the years 2015–2019. Both formal and material harmonization are increasing. The primary incentive behind the municipalities' voluntary sustainability report is the assignment from the politicians who are the municipalities' primary stakeholders. The secondary incentives proved to be legitimacy and accountability.