Two novel pump/probe techniques have been developed for measuring the recombination lifetime in crystalline silicon wafers. The first technique, single-beam pump/probe, uses one laser as both pump and probe. The second technique, quasi-steady state free-carrier absorption, measures lifetime under quasi-steady state conditions. These techniques are supported by a general mathematical model that predicts the experimental signal accounting for the 3D charge-carrier transport and recombination within the semiconductor. The predictions of the model are validated experimentally, and quantitative agreement is found between the model and experimental results for both techniques. The recombination lifetime measured by these techniques is verified independently using a standard pump/probe method, and the results are in agreement with this work. Single-beam pump/probe is a first-time demonstration of a technique capable of measuring lifetime in silicon using a single laser beam. It dramatically simplifies traditional pump/probe measurements by completely eliminating the second laser beam. QSS-FCA is the first quasi-steady state technique that can be calibrated in situ without the requirement of a calibrated reference wafer. The calibration constant is the free-carrier absorption cross section of silicon, which is a material constant. QSS-FCA is able to measure this cross section to a higher precision than what has been reported in the literature. Precise measurement of this constant opens up the possibility of studying more fundamental physics of silicon using QSS-FCA. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

At the moment, when energy and environmental issues are of concerned in our society, photovoltaic technology has received tremendous development and demand. Because carrier lifetime and diffusion coefficient are the important indicators to determine the recombination level, which influences the efficiency of solar cells to a large extent, they are regarded as key in choosing solar cell materials. A technique for effective lifetime measurement, modulated free-carrier absorption (FCA), can extract lifetime and diffusion coefficient simultaneously, which is supported by a general mathematical model that predicts the experimental signal accounting for the 3-dimensional (3D) charge-carrier transport and recombination within the semiconductor. A single mode 1064 nm laser modulated by an EO modulator is used as the pump and a 2050 nm modulated LED is used as probe in this experiment as the pump/probe parts. An IR camera detects the frequency-domain diffusion image from the tested silicon sample at the tested frequency range between 1 kHz to 200 kHz and the lifetime can be extracted by frequency-domain free-carrier concentration equation, which is a Lorentzian model. By simulating the diffusion data from the camera with the 3D free-carrier absorption model, we can extract lifetime and diffusion coefficient simultaneously. The fitted lifetime from frequency-domain free-carrier absorption equation is 33.5 ± 1.3 μs, and the fitted lifetime from this 3D FCA model is 32.8 ± 1.5 μs, which match to within the error bars. The fitted diffusion coefficient from this 3D FCA model is 15.6 ± 0.7 cm2/s, which agrees with the theoretical value of 16 cm2/s for silicon. Good quantitative agreement is found among the model, experimental data, and theory. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

A novel experimental technique has been developed for measuring the light trapping enhancement and the carrier recombination lifetime in silicon wafers. The technique is based on the pump/probe modulated free carrier absorption (MFCA) method, where the probe beam, attenuated by generated free carriers, carries information about the effective lifetime and the average light path enhancement in a textured silicon wafer. For the first time, a reflection mode MFCA technique is presented where the reflected part of the probe beam is used to perform measurements, while the conventional technique is based on measurements of the transmitted part of the probe beam. A theoretical model is presented to explain the behavior of the light beam in double-side polished and double-side textured silicon wafers. The model yields good agreement with the experimental results and explains the difference in the amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted signals. The results of the experimental measurements of the light path enhancement in a double-side textured sample are analyzed and the reasons for their deviation from the Lambertian limit are discussed. This work presents new applications of the MFCA technique and shows how it can be used for the simultaneous determination of more than one crucial characteristic of silicon solar cells. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

No description available.

The fluorescence spectroscopy and lifetime analysis in biological tissues has been presented as a technique of great potential for tissue characterization for diagnostic purposes. This potential is due to the main advantages of optical techniques based on fluorescence for diagnosis, which includes the possibility of evaluating the tissue metabolism in situ, without removal and processing of the biological sample, through a fast and non-invasive response. Skin lesions were the target interrogated tissue in the present study. They can be clinically classified into two major groups: pigmented and non-pigmented lesions. In each group, the clinical discrimination of benign and malignant lesions may be a complex task, especially for non-experienced clinicians. When these lesions have clinically similar features, the choice of the treatment modality becomes difficult. In this context, auxiliary diagnostic techniques are very important to improve the diagnostic resolution as well as treatment planning and success. Gold standard for skin diagnosis is obtained with the biopsy and further histological analysis. The information about these features is invasive and time consuming. When using a non-invasive procedure such as fluorescence lifetime measurements, the main interrogated fluorophores are NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), biomolecules involved in cellular respiration that may provide information on the metabolism of the cells. To differentiate each skin lesion, it is necessary to take into account the contribution of endogenous fluorophores emission such as collagen and elastin, and the absorption of chromophores such as melanin and hemoglobin. In addition to fluorescence decay analysis considering the contribution of fluorophores and chromophores, a stable and portable system is desired for clinical measurements and interrogation of biological tissue in vivo. In this study, we have assembled, calibrated, and characterized one of the worlds first portable time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy system for single-point measurements. This system was designed to be robust and user-friendly for clinical applications. The system was calibrated and characterized in vitro before the clinical application. It was used for evaluation of the photoaging process in sun-exposed and non-exposed skin and for discrimination of clinically similar skin lesions. Significant statistical differences were observed for 10 parameters when comparing normal and photoaged skin (students t-test, p < 0.001), and for all combinations of non-pigmented and pigmented lesions when using tri-exponential decay parameters (Wilcoxon rank sum test, p<0.05). Both in vivo measurements showed promising results and have potential for many applications in dermatology, oncology and aesthetics. Next steps include multivariate data analysis and the determination of the diagnostic resolution of fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy. Further investigation of optical processes related to fluorescence decay changes is necessary, since fluorescence lifetime values in biological tissues reported on the literature are very scarce and heterogeneous and not completely understood. / A análise da espectroscopia e do tempo de vida da fluorescência em tecidos biológicos vem sendo apresentada como uma técnica com grande potencial para a caracterização tecidual com finalidade diagnóstica. Esse potencial é devido às principais vantagens das técnicas ópticas de diagnóstico baseadas em fluorescência, que possibilitam avaliar o metabolismo in situ, sem a necessidade de remoção e processamento da amostra biológica, com uma resposta rápida e não-invasiva. Lesões de pele foram os tecidos investigados no presente estudo. Elas podem ser clinicamente classificadas em dois grandes grupos: pigmentadas e não pigmentadas. Em cada grupo, a discriminação clínica de lesões benignas e malignas pode ser uma tarefa complexa, principalmente para médicos com pouca experiência. Quando essas lesões apresentam características clínicas semelhantes, a escolha do tipo de tratamento torna-se difícil. Nesse contexto, técnicas auxiliares de diagnóstico são de grande relevância para melhorar a resolução de diagnóstico, assim como o planejamento e o sucesso do tratamento. O padrão ouro para o diagnóstico do câncer de pele é obtido por meio da biópsia e posterior análise histopatológica. A obtenção de informações sobre essas características é invasiva e consome bastante tempo. Ao utilizar procedimentos não-invasivos como medidas de tempo de vida de fluorescência, os fluoróforos de mais investigados são o NADH (nicotinamida adenina dinucleotídeo) e o FAD (flavina adenina dinucleotídeo), biomoléculas envolvidas na respiração celular que podem fornecer informação sobre o metabolismo das células. Para diferenciar cada tipo de lesão de pele, é necessário levar em conta a contribuição da emissão de fluoróforos endógenos como o colágeno, elastina e da absorção de cromóforos como melanina e hemoglobina. Além da análise do decaimento de fluorescência considerando a contribuição de fluoróforos e cromóforos, um sistema estável e portátil é desejado para medidas clínicas e investigação de tecidos biológicos in vivo. Nesse estudo, nós montamos, calibramos e caracterizamos um dos primeiros sistemas portáteis do mundo para espectroscopia de fluorescência resolvida no tempo para medidas pontuais. Esse sistema foi projetado para ser robusto e amigável ao usuário em aplicações clínicas. O sistema foi calibrado e caracterizado in vitro antes das aplicações clínicas. Ele foi utilizado para avaliação do processo de fotoenvelhecimento em pele exposta e não-exposta ao sol e para a discriminação de lesões de pele clinicamente semelhantes. Diferenças estatísticas significativas foram observadas para 10 parâmetros na comparação entre pele normal e fotoenvelhecida (teste t-student, p<0.001) e para todas as combinações de lesões pigmentadas e não-pigmentadas ao utilizar parâmetros do decaimento triexponencial (teste Wilcoxon rank sum, p<0.05). Ambas medidas in vivo mostraram resultados promissores e um potencial para muitas aplicações em dermatologia, oncologia e estética. As próximas etapas incluem análise multivariada de dados e determinação da resolução de diagnóstico da espectroscopia de tempo de vida de fluorescência. Uma maior investigação dos processos ópticos relacionados a mudanças nos decaimentos de fluorescência é necessária, pois o número de valores de tempo de vida de fluorescência em tecidos biológicos reportados na literatura é escasso e os valores são heterogêneos e não completamente compreendidos.

The fluorescence spectroscopy and lifetime analysis in biological tissues has been presented as a technique of great potential for tissue characterization for diagnostic purposes. This potential is due to the main advantages of optical techniques based on fluorescence for diagnosis, which includes the possibility of evaluating the tissue metabolism in situ, without removal and processing of the biological sample, through a fast and non-invasive response. Skin lesions were the target interrogated tissue in the present study. They can be clinically classified into two major groups: pigmented and non-pigmented lesions. In each group, the clinical discrimination of benign and malignant lesions may be a complex task, especially for non-experienced clinicians. When these lesions have clinically similar features, the choice of the treatment modality becomes difficult. In this context, auxiliary diagnostic techniques are very important to improve the diagnostic resolution as well as treatment planning and success. Gold standard for skin diagnosis is obtained with the biopsy and further histological analysis. The information about these features is invasive and time consuming. When using a non-invasive procedure such as fluorescence lifetime measurements, the main interrogated fluorophores are NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), biomolecules involved in cellular respiration that may provide information on the metabolism of the cells. To differentiate each skin lesion, it is necessary to take into account the contribution of endogenous fluorophores emission such as collagen and elastin, and the absorption of chromophores such as melanin and hemoglobin. In addition to fluorescence decay analysis considering the contribution of fluorophores and chromophores, a stable and portable system is desired for clinical measurements and interrogation of biological tissue in vivo. In this study, we have assembled, calibrated, and characterized one of the worlds first portable time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy system for single-point measurements. This system was designed to be robust and user-friendly for clinical applications. The system was calibrated and characterized in vitro before the clinical application. It was used for evaluation of the photoaging process in sun-exposed and non-exposed skin and for discrimination of clinically similar skin lesions. Significant statistical differences were observed for 10 parameters when comparing normal and photoaged skin (students t-test, p < 0.001), and for all combinations of non-pigmented and pigmented lesions when using tri-exponential decay parameters (Wilcoxon rank sum test, p<0.05). Both in vivo measurements showed promising results and have potential for many applications in dermatology, oncology and aesthetics. Next steps include multivariate data analysis and the determination of the diagnostic resolution of fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy. Further investigation of optical processes related to fluorescence decay changes is necessary, since fluorescence lifetime values in biological tissues reported on the literature are very scarce and heterogeneous and not completely understood. / A análise da espectroscopia e do tempo de vida da fluorescência em tecidos biológicos vem sendo apresentada como uma técnica com grande potencial para a caracterização tecidual com finalidade diagnóstica. Esse potencial é devido às principais vantagens das técnicas ópticas de diagnóstico baseadas em fluorescência, que possibilitam avaliar o metabolismo in situ, sem a necessidade de remoção e processamento da amostra biológica, com uma resposta rápida e não-invasiva. Lesões de pele foram os tecidos investigados no presente estudo. Elas podem ser clinicamente classificadas em dois grandes grupos: pigmentadas e não pigmentadas. Em cada grupo, a discriminação clínica de lesões benignas e malignas pode ser uma tarefa complexa, principalmente para médicos com pouca experiência. Quando essas lesões apresentam características clínicas semelhantes, a escolha do tipo de tratamento torna-se difícil. Nesse contexto, técnicas auxiliares de diagnóstico são de grande relevância para melhorar a resolução de diagnóstico, assim como o planejamento e o sucesso do tratamento. O padrão ouro para o diagnóstico do câncer de pele é obtido por meio da biópsia e posterior análise histopatológica. A obtenção de informações sobre essas características é invasiva e consome bastante tempo. Ao utilizar procedimentos não-invasivos como medidas de tempo de vida de fluorescência, os fluoróforos de mais investigados são o NADH (nicotinamida adenina dinucleotídeo) e o FAD (flavina adenina dinucleotídeo), biomoléculas envolvidas na respiração celular que podem fornecer informação sobre o metabolismo das células. Para diferenciar cada tipo de lesão de pele, é necessário levar em conta a contribuição da emissão de fluoróforos endógenos como o colágeno, elastina e da absorção de cromóforos como melanina e hemoglobina. Além da análise do decaimento de fluorescência considerando a contribuição de fluoróforos e cromóforos, um sistema estável e portátil é desejado para medidas clínicas e investigação de tecidos biológicos in vivo. Nesse estudo, nós montamos, calibramos e caracterizamos um dos primeiros sistemas portáteis do mundo para espectroscopia de fluorescência resolvida no tempo para medidas pontuais. Esse sistema foi projetado para ser robusto e amigável ao usuário em aplicações clínicas. O sistema foi calibrado e caracterizado in vitro antes das aplicações clínicas. Ele foi utilizado para avaliação do processo de fotoenvelhecimento em pele exposta e não-exposta ao sol e para a discriminação de lesões de pele clinicamente semelhantes. Diferenças estatísticas significativas foram observadas para 10 parâmetros na comparação entre pele normal e fotoenvelhecida (teste t-student, p<0.001) e para todas as combinações de lesões pigmentadas e não-pigmentadas ao utilizar parâmetros do decaimento triexponencial (teste Wilcoxon rank sum, p<0.05). Ambas medidas in vivo mostraram resultados promissores e um potencial para muitas aplicações em dermatologia, oncologia e estética. As próximas etapas incluem análise multivariada de dados e determinação da resolução de diagnóstico da espectroscopia de tempo de vida de fluorescência. Uma maior investigação dos processos ópticos relacionados a mudanças nos decaimentos de fluorescência é necessária, pois o número de valores de tempo de vida de fluorescência em tecidos biológicos reportados na literatura é escasso e os valores são heterogêneos e não completamente compreendidos.

<p>High-performance fibers used for ballistic protection are characterized by having outstanding mechanical properties such high modulus and strength. These mechanical properties are granted by the fiber’s chemical and physical structure as well as their high degree of orientation. Twaron fibers are one of the most commonly used fibers on soft body armors such as bulletproof vests. They are made from poly (p-phenylene terephthalamide) (PPTA), a rigid-rod and highly crystalline polymer. Although these fibers are crystalline and have great mechanical properties, their performance can decrease when they are exposed to different degradation factors. Free volume is the unoccupied space between the polymer molecules. It is responsible for characteristics such as diffusion and viscosity. Hence, the free volume changes as the polymer degrades. This thesis focuses on the effects of sonication, pH changes, and sweat on the free volume of PPTA fibers. </p><p><br></p> <p>A non-destructive technique known as positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS) was used to measure the free volume in PPTA. Changes in the free volume of fibers degraded under different conditions were compared to their mechanical performance. Degradation in DI water, pH 4 and pH 10 aqueous solutions was conducted for 10 weeks at 80^oC. Sweat degradation of PPTA fibers was also conducted for 10 weeks at 25^oC, 50^oC, and 100^oC. Fibers degraded in pH4 and sweat solutions had greater loss of mechanical performance and changes in the free volume. PALS was able to detect changes in the nanostructure of PPTA fibers at early stages of degradation. This data was supported by mechanical tests and is complementary to other characterization techniques such as small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Results of this research are a steppingstone for future studies on lifetime predictions of bulletproof vests and the development of the next generation of soft body armors. </p>

This work presents a summary of experimental data and theoretical models that characterize the temperature-dependent behavior of key carrier-transport parameters in silicon down to cryogenic temperatures. In extreme environment applications such as space-based electronics, accurate models of carrier recombination, carrier mobility, and incomplete ionization of dopants form a necessary foundation for the development of reliable high-performance devices and circuits. Not only do these models have a wide impact on the simulated DC and AC performance of devices, but they also play a critical role in predicting the behavior of important phenomena such as single event upset in digital logic circuits. With this motivation, an overview is given of SRH recombination theory, addressing in particular the dependence of recombination lifetime on temperature and injection level. Carrier lifetime measurement methods are reviewed, and experiments to study carrier lifetimes in the substrate of a commercial SiGe BiCMOS process are presented. The experimental data is analyzed and leveraged in order to develop calibrated TCAD-relevant models. Similarly, an overview of low-temperature resistivity in silicon is presented. Modeling of resistivity over temperature is discussed, addressing the prevailing theoretical models for both carrier mobility and incomplete ionization of dopants. Experimental measurements of the temperature dependence of resistivity in both p-type and n-type silicon are presented, and calibrated TCAD-relevant models for carrier mobility and incomplete ionization are developed. Finally, the ability to integrate these calibrated models within commercial TCAD software is demonstrated. In addition, applications for these accurate temperature-dependent models are discussed, and future directions are outlined for research into cryogenic modeling of fundamental physical parameters.