Cubes of coal have been tested in compression in the past, and it has been found. that the following formula, relating the compressive strength to the size of the cube can be applied: P = k .a- n Where P is the compressive strength in pounds per square inch. a is the edge dimension os specimens tested. n is a constant. k is a constant. The value of n has been found by a majority of people working on coal to be 0.5, however, lower values have also been found. In this study limestone shale and Plaster of Paris cubes, varying in size between one and three inches, and one and five inches in the case of shale, were tested in compression. The results were converted to logarithmic form, and the value of n determined for each material. It was found for the limestone and the Plaster of Paris that the value of n was close to zero over the range of sizes tested, indicating that the strength is independent of the size of the spec1men over the range one inch to three inch cubes. A value of 0.20 was found for the shale over the range one inch to five inches. The Griffith crack theory of failure gives the following result: P = k.c -0.5 Where P is the compressive strength in pounds per square inch. 2c is the length of cracks in the material. k is a constant. Thus, depending upon the relationship between c and a, the Griffith theory predicts that the value of n should be 0.5 for cracked materials where the length of crack is directly proportional to the edge dimension of the specimen, and zero where the length of crack is independent of the edge dimension of the specimen, in relatively uncracked materials. The Griffith theory is supported both by the results of compression tests, and by the results of the tests in this study and those previously conducted on coal. / Master of Science

Fossils recovered from limestones of the lower Cambrian (Stage 2-3) Yanjiahe Formation in Hubei Province, South China, recovered using acetic acid maceration, fracturing, and thin sectioning techniques were examined using a combination of analytical techniques, including energy dispersive spectroscopic (EDS) elemental mapping and micro-focus X-ray computed tomography (micro-CT). One important fossil recovered and analyzed with these techniques is a fossilized embryo. Fossilized animal embryos from lower Cambrian rocks provide a rare opportunity to study the ontogeny and developmental biology of early animals during the Cambrian explosion. The fossil embryos in this study exhibit a phosphatized outer envelope (interpreted as the chorion) that encloses a multicelled blastula-like embryo or a calcitized embryo marked by sets of grooves on its surface. The arrangement of these grooves resembles annulations found on the surface of the Cambrian-Ordovician fossil embryo Markuelia. Previously described late-stage Markuelia embryos exhibit annulations and an introvert ornamented by scalids, suggesting a scalidophoran affinity. In the Yanjiahe fossils illustrated herein, however, the phosphatized chorions and blastulas are not taxonomically or phylogenetically diagnostic, and the late-stage embryo is secondarily calcitized and thus poorly preserved, with only vague grooves indicative of Markuelia-type annulations. Consequently, their taxonomic assignment to the genus Markuelia is uncertain. If they indeed belong to the genus Markuelia, they are the oldest known Markuelia fossils from China, and represent both a new occurrence and possibly a new species. / Master of Science

This study was threefold: first, to determine the facies relationships of the limestones between the top of the Knox group and the base of the Liberty Hall shale; second, to study the faunas of the limestones; and third, to determine the relief of the erosion surface developed on the surface of the Knox group prior to the deposition of the overlying sediments. Study of the area in the North Fork of the Roanoke River was begun in the fall of 1950 and the work was continued in the summer of 1951. The lithologic divisions of the Middle Ordovician limestones was mapped. The 15-minute Blacksburg quadrangle was used es a base map with a modified scale of approximately 1:30,000. Sections were measured with a Brunton compass and a steel tape at several localities, and faunas were collected from several stratigraphic horizons. The facies relationships of the limestones were determined by detailed mapping, measurement and comparison of sections, and by tracing key beds. The thickness of the middle Ordovician limestones was determined by measuring in the direction of dip. Minor warps and possible collapse in places complicated the measurement, The variation of the strike and dip is probably related to the structural position of the beds in the Paris-Catawba Mountain syncline. Faunas were collected from the Middle Ordovician limestones. The lowest of these faunas came from a ledge about 10 feet above the Knox group, whereas the youngest of the faunas came from a horizon about 40 feet below the base of the Botetourt limestone. Species of these faunas have been identified and correlated with faunas from other Middle Ordovician limestones elsewhere. The following conclusions seem to be warranted by evidence presented in this paper: 1. The relief on the Knox group is about 225 feet in the area discussed in this report. 2. The limestone units discussed mw be correlated in the following way: a. The Ellett siltstone member of the New Market limestone is equivalent to the red shales reported in the Blackford formation in Tazewell County. However, the Blackford there included overlying impure limestones and dolomites that overlie the Ellett in the Valley of the North Fork of the Roanoke River. b. The impure magnesian limestones that overlie the Ellett are a lithofacies of the New Market limestone. c. The entire New Market limestone of the Valley of the North Fork of the Roanoke River is the equivalent of the New Market limestone of the Shenandoah Valley area in northern Virginia. d. The Whistle Greek limestone of the Valley of the North Fork of the Roanoke River is the equivalent of the Whistle week limestone of the areas in northern Virginia and Maryland. Fossils indicate a correlation with the New York Chazy. e. The beds herein called "Lincolnshire limestone" occupy the same position ae the Lincolnshire limestone of the northern areas of Virginia. f. The Botetourt limestone occupies the same stratigraphic position in the Valley of the North Fork of the Roanoke River as the unit named Botetourt by Cooper and Cooper in the Shenandoah Valley area. / Master of Science

The objective of this study was to investigate the role of fine (F) and coarse (C) limestone ratios and exogenous phytase at standard and superdosing activity on performance, egg quality, and bone quality of post-peak and late-lay Hy-Line W-36 hens. For post-peak, treatments with 40F:60C at 0 and 400 FTU/kg (standard phytase activity) increased hen-day egg production (HDEP). Treatments with 15F:85C decreased feed intake (FI) but also increased unsaleable eggs (UE) and eggshell-breaking strength (EBS). Treatments with 0 and 400 FTU/kg increased albumen quality and treatments with 1500 FTU/kg increased bone quality and phytate breakdown. For late-lay, interaction effects of limestone and phytase were observed for FI, HDEP, UE, bone, and egg quality. Treatments with 40F:60C decreased UE and increased EBS and bone mineral content of aluminum (Al). Treatments with 0 FTU/kg increased eggshell proximate of phosphorus (P) and gizzard pH, but 400 and 1500 FTU/kg increased phytate breakdown and bone quality.

An investigation was undertaken to better understand the hydrogeologic framework of the Rio Cobre and Rio Minho-Milk river basins, Jamaica, West Indies. A quasi three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater flow model was used to conceptualize flow conditions and establish a hydrogeologic budget of the region. The Rio Cobre and Rio Minho-Milk river basins lie on the Clarendon Block, an area with a complex geologic history. The geologic history includes: 1) the intrusion of calc-alkaline granites, 2) morphotectonic sedimentation, 3) three episodes of deformation by transpressional and transcurrent tectonics, 4) the deposition of a highly permeable, Tertiary carbonate platform, and 5) the development of near surface karst oriented with the major NNW-SSE fault trend in the basins. Since deposition, compression, faulting, and solution have modified the distribution and thickness of carbonate rocks impacting the ground-water flow of the region. The most notable features are the older NNW-SSE trend dip-slip faults and the younger E-W trend strike-slip faults, notably the South Coast Fault (SCF) formed during the Laramide Orogeny. The White Limestone aquifer is the principal aquifer of the Rio Cobre and Rio Minho-Milk river basins in the parishes of St. Catherine, Clarendon, and partly in Manchester. It is characterized by intercalated sequences of permeable rubbly and micritic carbonate rocks. The age of the rocks range from Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) to Recent. The permeability of the South Coast fault and the high hydraulic conductivity value associated with the Tertiary carbonate platform (480 m/d) in the Lower Rio Minho-Milk River basin control the gradient of the potentiometric surface and ground water flow in that region The agreement between the measured and the simulated hydraulic heads obtained for this steady-state model suggests that the values assigned to the hydraulic properties that characterize the ground-water flow of the White Limestone aquifer are reasonable. Recharge to the area occurs as net recharge in addition to upland subsurface inflow across the general head boundary in the northern part of the study area. Comparisons of calculated and observed values of head indicate that simulated groundwater flow field generally agree with field conditions. Several simplifying assumptions were made for the conceptualization and simulation of flow in the basins: 1) during the 1998 water year, ground-water in the basins was considered at steady-state, 2) pumping does not significantly affect the level of hydraulic heads; therefore pumping wells are not simulated, 3) Net recharge from precipitation varies spatially, 4) karstification and aquifer heterogeneity impact on the distribution of hydraulic conductivity, 5) Darcy's law is applicable to flow through the fractures and solutions openings in a karst region, 6) flow in the White Limestone aquifer occurs in the uppermost 650 m and vertical flow is assumed to be controlled by intervening units, 7) evaporation was not explicitly simulated in the model. Recharge rates were considered as "net recharge," and 8) submarine discharge occurs from the aquifer along the coast where aquifers are hydraulically connected to the sea. Ground-water flow in the basins was conceptualized as a quasi three-dimensional flow system in which two model layers were used. The model boundaries selected to represent natural hydrologic boundaries include (1) a no-flow along the western and eastern boundaries, (2) a constant head boundary along the freshwater/saltwater interface; (3) a general head boundary along the northern boundary; and (4) a horizontal-flow barrier boundary along the South Coast Fault; and (5) river leakage boundaries along major rivers draining the coastal basins. The simulated region is an area of 2,550 square kilometers, two-thirds of which is hilly and the remainder, irrigated plains with small swamps draining the area. The model consists of over 337,500 cells and employed a regular grid spacing of 200m x 160m. The model was designed and calibrated to steady-state conditions from data observed/estimated during water year 1998. The Water Resources Authority of Jamaica (WRAJ) will use the results of the modeling study as a predictive tool for long-term management and monitoring of water resources in the region. The model was calibrated using a manual trial-and-error adjustment of parameters. Hydraulic conductivity values in both model layers, hydraulic conductivity at the general-head boundary, and streambed conductance were adjusted during successive simulations until computed head values approximated field conditions. The computed potentiometric surface is an adequate or reasonable match on a regional scale, with the general horizontal hydraulic gradient oriented with the main fault trend NNW-SSE in both basins. Sensitivity tests of the calibrated model were conducted on net recharge, hydraulic conductivity, hydraulic conductivity assigned along the general-head boundary, and streambed vertical conductance to determine if differences between simulated and observed values were similar to the range of uncertainty in the values of input data and boundary conditions. Based on the results obtained from the sensitivity analysis, it is apparent that the model is extremely sensitive to changes in horizontal hydraulic conductivity and recharge in the form of precipitation. The model is least sensitive to streambed vertical hydraulic conductivity. / Master of Science

The Black Prince Limestone of southeastern Arizona has been assigned to the Morrowan on the basis of several long-ranging fossils. Since these were not especially diagnostic, the exact time represented by the Black Prince within the Morrowan was uncertain. To date the Black Prince more precisely, six sections were systematically sampled for conodonts. The condonts found, especially Neognathodus bassleri, Rachistognathus muricatus, Idiognathoides convexus, and Spathoqnathodus coloradoensis, indicate a middle Morrowan to early Derryan age for the Black Prince in the study area. Four conodont zones can be recognized: the Neognathodus bassleri Zone, the Idiognathodus sinuosis.- Streptognathodus anteeccentricus Zone , the Idiognathoides convexus Zone, and the Spathognathodus coloradoensis-Neognathodus columbiensis Zone. These zones compare favorably with the zonation previously established in the type Morrowan. This biostratigraphic evidence suggests that the hiatus between the Black Prince and Horquilla Limestones increases in magnitude from southeastern to south-central Arizona. The Black Prince represents a sequence of tidal flat and shallow subtidal carbonate deposits. Mudstones and sparsely fossiliferous wackestones with low fossil diversity and abundance characterize the tidal-flat facies. Grainstones, packstones, and fossiliferous wackestones with high fossil diversity and abundance characterize the shallow subtidal facies.

This thesis is a part of grant assignment and focuses on the effect and properties of input material, limestone, on reactivity and speed of decarbonation. The aim of this thesis is to find the effect of chemical composition, petrography, genesis and diagenesis, porosity and microstructure of limestones on reactivity and speed and profile of decarbonation. The experimental part of thesis describes analysis of chosen limestone samples regarding porosity, reactivity by Bischof-Uhde method and process of decarbonation of calcite in term of crystallinity of product.

The thesis is focused on the comparison of the role of different types of aggregates and the binder-aggregate ratio on the properties of lime mortars. The theoretical part of the thesis deals with the effect of properties of aggregate, a binder-aggregate ratio and a use of calcareous aggregate, especially limestone, on the properties of mortars. It also deals with the utilization of limestone as aggregate in a history of masonry. In the practical part of the thesis there is a comparison of physically-mechanical and microstructural properties of mortars prepared with different type of aggregate (siliceous sand and limestone aggregate), with varying binder-aggregate ratio and also with a partial substitution of the aggregate by limestone fines. It was found that the usage of limestone instead of quartz sand produces the mortar of comparable properties. The partial substitution of the aggregate with limestone fines caused noticeable growth of strength, especially in mortars with higher binder-aggregate ratio.

This thesis focuses on collecting all available data on mixing Portland cements and especially on Portland cements with limestone. In the experimental part are compare the rheological properities of mixing Portland cements with limestone, their compatibility with plasticizing additives, witch depends on the type of additives, dosage and time, then in experimental part they are summarized monitoring of physical-mechanical properties and volume changes of concrete.

This thesis investigates sustainability measures for quicklime and cement clinker production. It is the aim of this thesis to contribute to the effort of creating a more sustainable modus of industrial production. The methods used comprises process simulations through multicomponent chemical equilibrium calculations, fuel characterization and raw materials characterization through dynamic rate thermogravimetry. The investigated measures relate to alternative fuels, co-combustion, oxygen enrichment, oxyfuel combustion, mineral carbonation and optimizing raw material mixes based on thermal decomposition characteristics. The predictive multicomponent chemical equilibrium simulation tool developed has been used to investigate new process designs and combustion concepts. The results show that fuel selection and oxygen enrichment influence energy efficiency, and that oxyfuel combustion and mineral carbonation could allow for considerable emission reductions at low energy penalty, as compared to conventional post-combustion carbon dioxide capture technologies. Dynamic rate thermogravimetry, applied to kiln feed limestone, allows for improved feed analysis with a deeper understanding of how mixing of different feed materials will affect the production processes. The predictive simulation tool has proven to be of practical value when planning and executing production and full scale campaigns, reducing costs related to trial and error. The main conclusion of this work is that several measures are available to increase the sustainability of the industry.