Flutter analyses and tests are the major items in flight certification efforts required when a new air vehicle is developed or when a new external store is developed for an existing aircraft. The flight envelope of a new aircraft as well as the influence of aircraft modifications on an existing flight envelope can be safely determined only by flutter tests. In such tests, the aircraft is instrumented by accelerometers and exciters. Vibrations of the aircraft at specific dynamic pressures are measured and transmitted to a ground station via telemetry systems during flutter tests. These vibration data are analyzed online by using a flutter test software with various methods implemented in order to predict the safety margin with respect to flutter. Tests are performed at incrementally increasing dynamic pressures and safety regions of the flight envelope are determined step by step. Since flutter is a very destructive instability, tests are performed without getting too close to the flutter speed and estimations are performed by extrapolation. In this study, pretest analyses and flutter prediction methods that can be used in various flight conditions are investigated. Existing methods are improved and their applications are demonstrated with experiments. A novel method to predict limit cycle oscillations that are encountered in some modern fighter aircraft is developed. The prediction method developed in this study can effectively be used in cases where the nonlinearities in aircraft dynamics and air flow reduce the applicability of the classical prediction methods. Some further methods to reduce the adverse effects of these nonlinearities on the predictions are also developed.

A conversão de vibração em energia elétrica tem sido investigada por diversos grupos de pesquisa na última década. A principal motivação é a prospecção de fontes alternativas de energia elétrica para sistemas eletroeletrônicos remotamente operados e com fontes limitadas de energia. Diferentes mecanismos de transdução são investigados na literatura para a coleta de energia, entretanto, o piezelétrico tem se destacado devido à densidade de energia que proporciona e também facilidade de uso. Uma alternativa promissora que começa a ser estudada por alguns grupos de pesquisas é a conversão de energia de oscilações aeroelásticas em energia elétrica. Apesar da natureza destrutiva da maioria dos fenômenos aeroelásticos, eles apresentam um grande potencial para o estudo de novos mecanismos e sistemas para coleta de energia. A conversão piezelétrica de energia a partir de oscilações aeroelásticas lineares tem sido investigada. Entretanto, a geração piezoaeroelástica de energia pode se tornar mais atrativa e prática se realizada a partir sistemas aeroelásticos não lineares. A conversão se daria a partir de oscilações persistentes e com amplitude limitada (oscilações em ciclo limite – LCO) ocorrendo em um amplo intervalo de velocidades de escoamento. Define-se o objetivo deste projeto como a investigação numérica da conversão piezelétrica de energia a partir de oscilações aeroelásticas não lineares. Um modelo por elementos finitos para placa plana com piezocerâmicas é desenvolvido, respeitando-se as hipóteses de uma placa de von Kàrmàn. O carregamento aerodinâmico não estacionário é determinado a partir do método de malha de dipolos e uma aproximação do domínio do tempo obtida a partir da formulação apresentada por Roger. Os resultados eletroaeroelásticos são apresentados para asas com diferentes razões de aspecto investigadas em uma ampla faixa de velocidades e considerando-se diversos valores de resistores no domínio elétrico. / The converting of vibration into usable electrical energy has been investigated by several researches groups in the last decade. The main motivation is the possibility of obtaining alternatives electrical energy sources to power electronic system remotely operated and with limited energy sources. Different transduction mechanism has been presented in the energy harvesting literature. However the piezoelectric has been gained more attention because not only of its power density but also its ease of use. A promissory alternative that is becoming studied is the converting of aeroelastic oscillation into electrical energy. Despite of the destructive nature of unstable aeroelastic phenomena (such as, flutter), they present a great potential to the study of innovative mechanism to harvest energy. Although the piezoelectric energy conversion using linear aeroelastic has been investigated in the literature, the use of non linear aeroelastic system can be more practical and attractive. The non linear aeorelastic harvesting occurs by persistent oscillation and with limited amplitudes (Limited Cycle Oscillation – LCO) and can be performed by considerable velocity interval greater than the linear flutter speed. The objective of this work is to investigate the energy harvesting by non linear aeroelastic oscillation. A finite element model of a thin plate (with piezoceramics) is developed), using the non linear hypothesis of von Karman. The unstable aerodynamic loading is obtained by a doublet-lattice method (DLM) and with its time domain conversion using the Roger approximation. The eletroaeroelastic results are presented for several wings with different aspect ratios, and with different resistance values in the electrical domain. The eletroaeroelastic results of the generator wing are investigated for several airspeed greater than its linear flutter speed.

A aeroelasticidade estuda a interação mútua entre os efeitos aerodinâmicos e estruturais. É sabido que essa relação muitas vezes se comporta de maneira não linear, causando diversos problemas, tais como flutter, oscilações em ciclo limite, bifurcações e caos. Tais fenômenos são difíceis de serem diagnosticados, podendo causar problemas graves à estrutura das aeronaves e também inviabilizar as suas operações. Dentre as principais fontes de não linearidades em sistemas aeroelásticos, pode-se citar as de origem aerodinâmica e estrutural. As de origem estrutural, por sua vez, podem ter caráter distribuído ou concentrado. Sabe-se que os efeitos estruturais concentrados denominados enrijecimento e folga são os de maior impacto na aeroelasticidade não linear. Desse modo, o objetivo desse trabalho é estudar a interação não linear entre duas não linearidades estruturais, ou seja, o enrijecimento associado à rigidez em torção e a folga presente nas articulações das superfícies de controle de seções típicas aeroelásticas. Experimentos em túnel de vento são realizados utilizando um dispositivo que permite variar a intensidade do efeito de enrijecimento e do tamanho da folga na articulação da superfície de comando. O modelo numérico de seção típica aeroelástica também é utilizado e validado com dados experimentais. Análises por meio de diagramas de bifurcação de Hopf e técnicas baseadas em espectros de potência são utilizadas. Todas as respostas aeroelásticas foram caracterizadas através de ferramentas de análise nos domínios do tempo e da frequência, como técnica de reconstrução de espaço de estados e os espectros de alta ordem (HOS), os quais são importantes na identificação dos tipos de acoplamentos não lineares. Resultados indicam que a combinação dos efeitos de enrijecimento e folga são responsáveis pelo comportamento subcrítico das bifurcações de Hopf e que a intensidade do enrijecimento tem influência direta nas amplitudes de ciclo limite. / Aeroelasticity is the field of engineering that deals with the mutual interaction between the aerodynamic and structural dynamics effects. It is known that this relationship often shows nonlinear behavior, causing various problems such as flutter, limit cycle oscillations, bifurcations and chaos. Such phenomena are difficult to predict and can cause serious problems to the aircraft structure and also they can jeopardize their operations. The unsteady aerodynamic and structural dynamics provide the main sources of nonlinearities in aeroelastic systems. Structural nonlinearities can be treated as distributed or concentrated effects. It is know that the nonlinear concentrated structural effects referred as hardening and freeplay have a significant impact on nonlinear aeroelasticity. The objective of this work is to analyze an aeroelastic system under the influence of combined structural nonlinearities, i.e., the hardening nonlinearity in the pitch airfoil motion and the freeplay nonlinearity in the control surface hinge. Wind tunnel experiments are carried out using one device that allows to vary the intensity of the hardening effect and the size of the freeplay gap in the control surface hinge. The numerical model of the typical aeroelastic section is also used and validated with experimental data. All aeroelastic responses are characterized by analytical tools in time and frequency domains. It was used the state space reconstruction technique and the higher order spectral analysis (HOS) to identify types of nonlinear couplings. The results indicate that the combination of hardening and freeplay effects are responsible for inducing the subcritical behavior on the Hopf bifurcations and that the intensity of the stiffness has a direct influence on the limit cycle amplitudes.

A aeroelasticidade estuda a interação mútua entre os efeitos aerodinâmicos e estruturais. É sabido que essa relação muitas vezes se comporta de maneira não linear, causando diversos problemas, tais como flutter, oscilações em ciclo limite, bifurcações e caos. Tais fenômenos são difíceis de serem diagnosticados, podendo causar problemas graves à estrutura das aeronaves e também inviabilizar as suas operações. Dentre as principais fontes de não linearidades em sistemas aeroelásticos, pode-se citar as de origem aerodinâmica e estrutural. As de origem estrutural, por sua vez, podem ter caráter distribuído ou concentrado. Sabe-se que os efeitos estruturais concentrados denominados enrijecimento e folga são os de maior impacto na aeroelasticidade não linear. Desse modo, o objetivo desse trabalho é estudar a interação não linear entre duas não linearidades estruturais, ou seja, o enrijecimento associado à rigidez em torção e a folga presente nas articulações das superfícies de controle de seções típicas aeroelásticas. Experimentos em túnel de vento são realizados utilizando um dispositivo que permite variar a intensidade do efeito de enrijecimento e do tamanho da folga na articulação da superfície de comando. O modelo numérico de seção típica aeroelástica também é utilizado e validado com dados experimentais. Análises por meio de diagramas de bifurcação de Hopf e técnicas baseadas em espectros de potência são utilizadas. Todas as respostas aeroelásticas foram caracterizadas através de ferramentas de análise nos domínios do tempo e da frequência, como técnica de reconstrução de espaço de estados e os espectros de alta ordem (HOS), os quais são importantes na identificação dos tipos de acoplamentos não lineares. Resultados indicam que a combinação dos efeitos de enrijecimento e folga são responsáveis pelo comportamento subcrítico das bifurcações de Hopf e que a intensidade do enrijecimento tem influência direta nas amplitudes de ciclo limite. / Aeroelasticity is the field of engineering that deals with the mutual interaction between the aerodynamic and structural dynamics effects. It is known that this relationship often shows nonlinear behavior, causing various problems such as flutter, limit cycle oscillations, bifurcations and chaos. Such phenomena are difficult to predict and can cause serious problems to the aircraft structure and also they can jeopardize their operations. The unsteady aerodynamic and structural dynamics provide the main sources of nonlinearities in aeroelastic systems. Structural nonlinearities can be treated as distributed or concentrated effects. It is know that the nonlinear concentrated structural effects referred as hardening and freeplay have a significant impact on nonlinear aeroelasticity. The objective of this work is to analyze an aeroelastic system under the influence of combined structural nonlinearities, i.e., the hardening nonlinearity in the pitch airfoil motion and the freeplay nonlinearity in the control surface hinge. Wind tunnel experiments are carried out using one device that allows to vary the intensity of the hardening effect and the size of the freeplay gap in the control surface hinge. The numerical model of the typical aeroelastic section is also used and validated with experimental data. All aeroelastic responses are characterized by analytical tools in time and frequency domains. It was used the state space reconstruction technique and the higher order spectral analysis (HOS) to identify types of nonlinear couplings. The results indicate that the combination of hardening and freeplay effects are responsible for inducing the subcritical behavior on the Hopf bifurcations and that the intensity of the stiffness has a direct influence on the limit cycle amplitudes.

Cette étude est le résultat d’une thèse CIFRE de trois ans entre le bureau d’étude d’Airbus (domaine du contrôle de l’avion) et le laboratoire TéSA à Toulouse. L’objectif principal est de proposer, développer et valider une solution logicielle pour la détection et le diagnostic d’un type spécifique de vibrations des gouvernes de profondeur et direction, appelée oscillation en cycle limite (limit cycle oscillation ou LCO en anglais), basée sur les signaux existants dans les avions civils. LCO est un terme mathématique générique définissant un mode périodique indépendant de conditions initiales et se produisant dans des systèmes non linéaires non conservatifs. Dans cette étude, nous nous intéressons au phénomène de LCO induit par les jeux mécaniques dans les gouvernes d’un avion civil. Les conséquences du LCO sont l’augmentation locale de la charge structurelle, la dégradation des qualités de vol, la réduction de la durée de vie de l’actionneur, la dégradation du confort du poste de pilotage et de la cabine, ainsi que l’augmentation des coûts de maintenance. L’état de l’art en matière de détection et de diagnostic du LCO induit par le jeu mécanique est basé sur la sensibilité du pilote aux vibrations et sur le contrôle périodique du jeu sur les gouvernes. Cette étude propose une solution basée sur les données (issues de la boucle d’asservissement des actionneurs qui agissent sur les gouvernes) pour aider au diagnostic du LCO et à l’isolement du jeu mécanique. L’objectif est d’améliorer encore plus la disponibilité des avions et de réduire les coûts de maintenance en fournissant aux compagnies aériennes un signal de contrôle pour le LCO et les jeux mécaniques. Pour cette raison, deux solutions algorithmiques pour le diagnostic des vibrations et des jeux ont été proposées. Un détecteur en temps réel pour la détection du LCO est tout d’abord proposé basé sur la théorie du rapport de vraisemblance généralisé (generalized likelihood ratio test ou GLRT en anglais). Certaines variantes et simplifications sont également proposées pour satisfaire les contraintes industrielles. Un détecteur de jeu mécanique est introduit basé sur l’identification d’un modèle de Wiener. Des approches paramétrique (estimateur de maximum de vraisemblance) et non paramétrique (régression par noyau) sont explorées, ainsi que certaines variantes des méthodes non paramétriques. En particulier, le problème de l’estimation d’un cycle d’hystérésis (choisi comme la non-linéarité de sortie d’un modèle de Wiener) est abordé. Ainsi, les problèmes avec et sans contraintes sont étudiés. Une analyse théorique, numérique (sur simulateur) et expérimentale (données de vol et laboratoire) est réalisée pour étudier les performances des détecteurs proposés et pour identifier les limitations et la faisabilité industrielle. Les résultats numériques et expérimentaux obtenus confirment que le GLRT proposé (et ses variantes / simplifications) est une méthode très efficace pour le diagnostic du LCO en termes de performance, robustesse et coût calculatoire. D’autre part, l’algorithme de diagnostic des jeux mécaniques est capable de détecter des niveaux de jeu relativement importants, mais il ne fournit pas de résultats cohérents pour des niveaux de jeu relativement faibles. En outre, des types d’entrée spécifiques sont nécessaires pour garantir des résultats répétitifs et cohérents. Des études complémentaires pourraient être menées afin de comparer les résultats de GLRT avec une approche Bayésienne et pour approfondir les possibilités et les limites de la méthode paramétrique proposée pour l’identification du modèle de Wiener. / This research study is the result of a 3 years CIFRE PhD thesis between the Airbus design office(Aircraft Control domain) and TéSA laboratory in Toulouse. The main goal is to propose, developand validate a software solution for the detection and diagnosis of a specific type of elevator andrudder vibration, called limit cycle oscillation (LCO), based on existing signals available in flightcontrol computers on board in-series aircraft. LCO is a generic mathematical term defining aninitial condition-independent periodic mode occurring in nonconservative nonlinear systems. Thisstudy focuses on the LCO phenomenon induced by mechanical freeplays in the control surface ofa civil aircraft. The LCO consequences are local structural load augmentation, flight handlingqualities deterioration, actuator operational life reduction, cockpit and cabin comfort deteriorationand maintenance cost augmentation. The state-of-the-art for freeplay induced LCO detection anddiagnosis is based on the pilot sensitivity to vibration and to periodic freeplay check on the controlsurfaces. This study is thought to propose a data-driven solution to help LCO and freeplaydiagnosis. The goal is to improve even more aircraft availability and reduce the maintenance costsby providing to the airlines a condition monitoring signal for LCO and freeplays. For this reason,two algorithmic solutions for vibration and freeplay diagnosis are investigated in this PhD thesis. Areal time detector for LCO diagnosis is first proposed based on the theory of the generalized likeli hood ratio test (GLRT). Some variants and simplifications are also proposed to be compliantwith the industrial constraints. In a second part of this work, a mechanical freeplay detector isintroduced based on the theory of Wiener model identification. Parametric (maximum likelihoodestimator) and non parametric (kernel regression) approaches are investigated, as well as somevariants to well-known nonparametric methods. In particular, the problem of hysteresis cycleestimation (as the output nonlinearity of a Wiener model) is tackled. Moreover, the constrainedand unconstrained problems are studied. A theoretical, numerical (simulator) and experimental(flight data and laboratory) analysis is carried out to investigate the performance of the proposeddetectors and to identify limitations and industrial feasibility. The obtained numerical andexperimental results confirm that the proposed GLR test (and its variants/simplifications) is a very appealing method for LCO diagnostic in terms of performance, robustness and computationalcost. On the other hand, the proposed freeplay diagnostic algorithm is able to detect relativelylarge freeplay levels, but it does not provide consistent results for relatively small freeplay levels. Moreover, specific input types are needed to guarantee repetitive and consistent results. Further studies should be carried out in order to compare the GLRT results with a Bayesian approach and to investigate more deeply the possibilities and limitations of the proposed parametric method for Wiener model identification.

<p>A series of aeroelastic analyses is performed for a flexible high-aspect-ratio wing representative of a high altitude long endurance (HALE) aircraft. Such aircraft are susceptible to dynamic instabilities such as flutter, which can lead to large amplitude limit cycle oscillations. These structural motions are modeled by a representative linear typical section model and by Hodges-Dowell beam theory, which includes leading-order nonlinear elastic coupling. Aerodynamic forces are represented by the ONERA dynamic stall model with its coefficients calibrated to CFD data versus wind tunnel test data. Time marching computations of the coupled nonlinear beam and ONERA system highlight a number of features relevant to the aeroelastic response of HALE aircraft, including the influence of a tip store, the sensitivity of the flutter boundary and limit cycle oscillations to aerodynamic CFD or test data, and the roles of structural nonlinearity and nonlinear aerodynamic stall in the dynamic stability of high-aspect-ratio wings.</p> / Dissertation

No description available.