De nombreux procédés de la recherche et de l'industrie utilisent l'extraction liquide-liquide, technique qui permet la séparation sélective de produits au sein d'un mélange. À cet effet, deux liquides non miscibles sont mis en contact : une phase aqueuse et une phase organique, l'une contenant généralement une molécule extractante capable de transférer les éléments désirés à l'autre. Le transfert se produit à la surface de contact entre les deux phases. Après le transfert, les deux phases sont séparées par décantation. Dans la pratique, ces opérations sont effectuées dans des appareils industriels. Pour optimiser et comprendre le fonctionnement de ces dispositifs, il est important de déterminer les caractéristiques fondamentales de l'émulsion. Il s'agit notamment des paramètres liés à la vitesse des écoulements ainsi que ceux liés au mélange des fluides comme l'aire interfaciale, le taux de rétention, ou la distribution en taille de la population de gouttes. Plusieurs techniques d'imagerie peuvent être utilisées pour les mesurer. L'une d'elles, l'holographie numérique, est bien connue pour permettre la reconstruction complète en 3D d'un écoulement à partir d'une seule acquisition. Ce travail de thèse traite d'une application de l'holographie numérique en ligne directement sur des gouttes en mouvement dans une phase liquide continue. La taille des gouttes a imposé l'exploration d'un régime de diffraction peu étudié à ce jour. Dans ce domaine, le modèle du disque opaque classiquement employé n'est pas valide et un meilleur accord est obtenu avec un modèle mixte lui associant une lentille mince. La focalisation des hologrammes est réalisée via une méthode dédiée et automatique qui a été établie à partir d'une étude complète de la littérature. Dans un deuxième temps, afin de mesurer des rétentions plus élevées, elle est complétée par une approche inverse permettant de corriger les mauvais positionnements et de restituer les gouttes non détectées. Ce traitement a été appliqué à des résultats expérimentaux, sur un dispositif de référence produisant des gouttes calibrées, et comparé à des mesures indépendantes. Ces essais ont validé la pertinence de l'holographie pour la caractérisation des émulsions. / Several processes used in research and industry are based on liquid-liquid extraction, a method designed for selective separation of products in a mixture. In liquid-liquid extraction, two immiscible liquids are contacted: an aqueous phase and an organic phase, one of which generally contains an extractant molecule capable of transferring the desired elements to the other phase. The transfer occurs at the contact surface between the two phases. After transfer, both phases are separated by settling. In practice, these operations are performed in industrial apparatus. In order to optimize the operation of these devices, it's important to determine the fundamental characteristics of the emulsion. These include parameters related to the fluid flow velocity as well as parameters related to fluid mixing such as the interfacial area, hold-up, and size distribution of the droplets population. Numerous imaging techniques can be used to measure these parameters. One of them, digital holography, is well-known for allowing complete reconstruction of information about a 3D flow in a single shot. This PhD work deals with a direct application of digital in line holography to droplets rising in a continuous liquid phase. The droplet size imposes a regime of intermediate-field diffraction hardly explored to date. Acquired diffraction patterns show that the usual dark disk model is not valid and that good agreement is obtained with a mixed model coupling thin lens with opaque disk. Hologram focusing is nevertheless performed with a dedicated automated method. A literature review has been conducted to identify the sharpest autofocus function for our application. In a second step, in order to measure high retention rates, an inverse problem approach is applied on all the outliers and missing droplets. This hologram restitution treatment has been applied to experimental results with a comparison to independent measurements. The main results obtained with calibrated droplets are presented detailing the test device and instrumentation. They have validated the relevance of holography for the characterization of emulsions.

Dans le but de prédire l’évolution d’un hypothétique accident au sein d’un réacteur nucléaire, nous nous proposons au travers de cette étude de comprendre la dynamique de bulles de gaz évoluant dans un bain stratifié constitué de deux liquides superposés. Pour ce faire, un dispositif expérimental muni de caméras à haute cadence a été construit afin d’observer en détail la dynamique de bulles d’air isolées et de trains de bulles traversant une interface séparant deux liquides newtoniens immiscibles initialement au repos. En faisant varier la taille des bulles injectées ainsi que les contrastes de viscosité entre les liquides d’un et quatre ordres de grandeur respectivement, ce dispositif a permis d’observer une grande variété de régimes d’écoulement. Dans certaines situations, les bulles de taille millimétrique restent piégées à l’interface liquide-liquide, tandis que les bulles plus grosses parviennent à traverser l’interface, entraînant une importante colonne de liquide lourd derrière elles. Après que l’influence des paramètres physiques a été qualitativement établie à la lumière de modèles simples, des simulations numériques de plusieurs situations sélectionnées ont été réalisées. Celles-ci ont été menées à partir de deux approches basées sur les équations de Navier-Stokes incompressibles, l’une utilisant une technique de capture d’interface, l’autre une description de type « interface diffuse » de Cahn-Hilliard. Les comparaisons entre les résultats expérimentaux et numériques ont confirmé la fiabilité des prédictions numériques dans la plupart des cas, mais ont également souligné le besoin d’améliorer la capture de phénomènes physiques à petite échelle, en particulier ceux liés au drainage de film. / In order to predict the evolution of a hypothetical accident in pressurized water nuclear reactors, this study aims to understand the dynamics of gas bubbles ascending in a stratified mixture made of two superimposed liquids. To this aim, an experimental device equipped with two high-speed video cameras was designed, allowing us to observe isolated air bubbles and bubble trains crossing a horizontal interface separating two Newtonian immiscible liquids initially at rest. The size of the bubbles and the viscosity contrast between the two liquids were varied by more than one and four orders of magnitude respectively, making it possible to observe a wide variety of flow regimes. In some situations, small millimetric bubbles remain trapped at the liquid-liquid interface, whereas larger bubbles succeed in crossing the interface and tow a significant column of lower fluid behind them. After the influence of the physical parameters was qualitatively established thanks to simple models, direct numerical simulations of several selected experimental situations were performed with two different approaches. These are both based on the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations, one making use of an interfacecapturing technique, the other of a diffuse Cahn-Hilliard description. Comparisons between experimental and numerical results confirmed the reliability of the computational approaches in most situations but also highlighted the need for improvements to capture small-scale physical phenomena especially those related to film drainage.

Les procédés continus par rapport aux procédés batch sont réputés être plus surs, plus économiques et plus sélectifs. Au regard de ces avantages, de plus en plus d'industries opérant traditionnellement en batch s'orientent vers des procédés continus. Si beaucoup de recherches ont été menées dans ce domaine en chimie fine, il n'en est pas de même pour les procédés de polymérisation et plus particulièrement pour le procédé de polymérisation en suspension du chlorure de vinyle. Ce procédé est à l'heure actuelle un des procédés batch les plus aboutis tant il a subi d'améliorations au cours des dernières décennies sur les plan chimiques (recette) et technologiques. Cependant, l'exposition au chlorure de vinyle est extrêmement toxique et le procédé présente notamment toujours des limitations en transfert thermique inhérentes à la technologie batch. De plus, l'étape réactionnelle constitue la seule étape batch du procédé total de production. Eu égard a la formation des grains de PVC au cours de la réaction, le procédé peut-être divise en trois principales étapes : une étape de dispersion liquide-liquide dans laquelle les gouttelettes de monomères (diamètre moyen 30-50μm) sont formées et stabilisées, une étape de réaction qui s'accompagne d'un phénomène d'agglomération contrôlée des gouttelettes de monomères et au cours duquel les particules polymérisant s’avèrent collantes et une pure étape réactionnelle au cours de laquelle la polymérisation est menée jusqu'à la conversion désirée. La présente étude se propose d'identifier les technologies adaptées pour chacune des étapes identifiées. Compte tenu des connaissances actuelles sur le comportement et l'évolution des grains avec la conversion et après une étude bibliographique sur les procédés continus de polymérisation, les technologies choisies dans ce travail sont les mélangeurs statiques et différents design de colonnes pulsées utilisées à co-courant. L'étape de dispersion liquide-liquide a été étudiée a l’aide de trois technologies différentes pour des systèmes de phases modèles. Concernant les mélangeurs statiques, les études ont démontré leur capacité à obtenir des gouttelettes de taille contrôlée et de la taille désirée. Dans la gamme étudiée, aucun effet de la concentration en phase dispersée n'a été démontre sur la taille des gouttes. Le paramètre physico-chimique le plus influent est la tension interfaciale. Celle-ci a d'ailleurs été estimée aux temps courts, correspondant aux temps de séjour (40-100 ms) dans les mélangeurs statiques, en modifiant la technique de la goutte pendante. Les résultats en termes de diamètre de goutte ont été corrélés via les nombres adimensionnels caractéristiques du système et de l'écoulement, à savoir les nombres de Reynolds et de Weber. A la lueur de ces résultats, les mélangeurs statiques ont été installes au pilote industriel pour effectuer des chargements de réacteurs batch de polymérisation. En plus de réduire considérablement les temps de chargement, leur utilisation a montré une meilleure répartition des agents de suspension et de l'initiateur au sein du grain. Ensuite, deux design de colonnes pulsées ont été utilises : la colonne pulsée a disques et couronnes a co-courant ascendant vertical et le COBR (continuous oscillatory baffled reactor, Nitech). Pour le premier design, les influence du matériau de garnissage et de son agencement (type et hauteur), des paramètres physicochimiques (concentration en phase dispersée, tensioactifs) et des paramètres hydrodynamiques (débit total, amplitude et fréquence d'oscillation) sur la taille des gouttes obtenues ont été examinées. Avec le second design, seuls les paramètres hydrodynamiques ont été étudiés. Une corrélation sur la taille des gouttes est proposée en fonction de nombres adimensionnels caractéristiques de ces appareils. Les trois technologies génératrices de la dispersion sont alors comparées en termes d'énergie dissipée et de puissance dissipée. [...] / Continuous processes present the benefit to be safer and more cost saving than batch processes. Many researches have been carried out in fine chemistry but few contributions refer to polymerization. We focus on the vinyl chloride suspension polymerization. This process has been extensively studied in batch with lots of improvement regarding the formulation and the technologies. This polymerization process is highly complex due to the toxic nature of the monomer, the good manage of heat transfer and stirring. Moreover the reaction step remains the only batch step of the PVC production. According to the PVC grain formation, the process can be divided into three steps (i) a liquid-liquid dispersion step in which the monomer droplet (30-50 µm) are generated and stabilized, (ii) a controlled agglomeration step of the reacting droplets exhibiting a sticky behaviour, (iii) a reaction step until the conversion rate is around 80-90% and the particles size is stable. In this study, the different technologies suitable for the different steps are pointed out. Based on the state of the art of the grain behaviour depending on the reaction conversion and on the literature concerning polymerization continuous process, static mixers and different co-current pulsed columns are proposed. Three technologies with different model system were chosen to study the liquid-liquid dispersion step. Static mixers allow the control of the droplet size under turbulent flow. In the range of the operating conditions, the dispersed phase concentration does not have a significant effect on the droplet size. The interfacial tension appears to be the most significant physico-chemical parameters. Correlation to predict the mean droplet size is proposed depending on different dimensionless numbers based on the hydrodynamics and on the systems: the Reynolds and Weber numbers. Given the promising results, static mixers are implemented at pilot scale to load the batch prior to polymerization. Their use demonstrates a noticeable reduction of the loading time and a better homogenisation of the different suspending agents and initiator inside the PVC grain. The two co-current pulsed columns design studied are the discs and doughnuts pulsed column and the COBR (continuous oscillatory baffled reactor, Nitech). For the first one, the effect of the packing materials (type and height), of the physico-chemical parameters (dispersed phase concentration, surfactant) and of hydrodynamic parameters (flowrate and oscillation conditions) on the droplet size are investigated where as for the second one the study is limited to the hydrodynamic parameters. A mean droplet size correlation is proposed based on the characteristic dimensionless numbers. The three continuous contactors used for liquid-liquid dispersion are compared in term of energy dissipation rate. The reaction is carried out in a continuous tubular reactor (the pulsed column). The column is suitable to transport solid-liquid suspension. Vinyl acetate suspension polymerization is performed to demonstrate the feasibility and particularly to study the encrusting and fouling problem. The first results are very promising.

L’extraction liquide-liquide fait partie des procédés hydrométallurgiques les plus étudiés et développés, particulièrement dans les domaines d'applications de l’extraction et de la purification de métaux comme les lanthanides et les actinides, de grand intérêt dans les secteurs de l'énergie et des technologies de pointe. De nombreux extractants ont ainsi été développés au cours des dernières décennies dont la nature et l’arrangement des sites de chélation, la rigidité voire la stéréochimie déterminent l’affinité et la sélectivité vis-à-vis d’une cible métallique. L’étude de systèmes chélatant organisés sur des macrocycles a notamment fait l’objet de nombreux travaux recherches. Dans cette étude, l'organisation de sous-unités diglycolamide (DGA) et diamide (DA) sur des plateformes macrocycliques tel que le calix[4]arène et le résorcinarène a été abordée vis-à-vis de l’extraction des terres rares et de l’uranium. Une étude détaillée de l'effet de l'organisation du DGA sur les performances d'extraction montre que les macrocycles synthétisés sont plus affins et sélectifs des terres rares lourdes (HREEs) que des légères (LREEs). Une étude comparative dédiée à l'extraction des lanthanides par ces macrocycles en milieu liquide ionique montre également que le calix[4]arène est un meilleur candidat comme plateforme pré-organisatrice que le cavitand résorcinarène. D'autre part, une étude détaillée sur le pouvoir chélatant d’un calixarène fonctionnalisé par des diamides a été entreprise pour l'extraction sélective de l'uranium en milieu sulfurique, démontrant ici que le motif diamide est plus efficace et plus sélectif que l’analogue calixarénique. / The liquid-liquid extraction is one of the most studied and developed hydrometallurgical processes, particularly in the areas of applications for the extraction and purification of metals of great interest in the sectors of energy and advanced technologies, such as lanthanides and actinides. Many extractants have been developed for the extraction of these metals in the recent decades where the nature, the arrangement, the rigidity and the stereochemistry of chelating sites determine the affinity and selectivity toward the target metals. The study of chelating systems organized on macrocycles has constituted, in particular, the subject of numerous research studies.In this study, the organization of diglycolamide (DGA) and diamide (DA) subunits on Calix-[4]-arene and resorcinarene cavitand was studied for the extraction of rare earth elements (REEs) and uranium (U). A detailed study on the effect of the organization of DGA subunit on the extraction performance of lanthanides, in toluene, showed that the synthesized macrocycles are more efficient and more selective toward heavy rare earths (HREEs) than the light ones (LREEs). A comparative study for the extraction of lanthanides by these macrocycles in ionic liquid medium revealed that the calix-[4]-arene is a better candidate as preorganised platform than the resorcinarene cavitand. Moreover, a detailed study on the chelating capacity of a calixarene functionalized with diamides (DA) was done for the selective extraction of uranium in sulfuric medium, demonstrating that the diamide pattern is more efficient and more selective than its calixarene analogue.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O estudo da estabilidade de emulsões de biocombustíveis destaca-se, dentre outros aspectos, pela necessidade de identificação das características destas. Esta necessidade reforça-se pela dificuldade de detecção de biodiesel e suas misturas quando estão fora de especificação, além de se aplicar aos processos de separação e purificação do biodiesel após a transesterificação. O entendimento deste problema poderá ser alcançado a partir de estudos de estabilidade associados aos modelos termodinâmicos de equilíbrio líquido-líquido (modelo NRTL) em sistemas ternários, que serão a base da modelagem proposta neste trabalho. O levantamento de dados envolve técnicas de observação direta em titulação, e ensaios de estabilidade e tensiometria, com algumas alterações das técnicas clássicas. Desta forma, o objetivo principal do trabalho é propor uma maneira de identificar e caracterizar as interfaces das emulsões formadas e estudar a estabilidade das fases envolvidas. Além disso, estuda-se a introdução de alcoóis como agentes tensoativos para viabilizar a utilização de misturas de combustíveis, mesmo na região de mais de uma fase. Para o desenvolvimento do trabalho, emulsões envolvendo os constituintes básicos serão combinadas entre si em diferentes proporções. A etapa inicial constitui-se de um mapeamento das misturas e proporções que formam as emulsões, baseadas nas curvas de equilíbrio. Em seguida, faz-se o estudo de caracterização e estabilidade destes sistemas. Com estas informações é possível mapear o sentido de incremento de tensão na interface e instabilidade da separação de fases das emulsões em relação aos diagramas ternários correspondentes. Por fim, propõe-se uma estratégia para estimar os parâmetros termodinâmicos do NRTL para as espécies presentes nos sistemas estudados e prever o comportamento dos mesmos e de sistemas similares. Este modelo matemático proposto tem como objetivo complementar a técnica experimental adotada para construção das curvas de equilíbrio, sendo bem sucedido / The study of the stability of biofuels emulsions calls attention, among other things, to the need to identify their characteristics. This need is reinforced by the difficulty of detecting biodiesel and its blends when they are out of specification, and apply the processes of biodiesel separation and purification after transesterification. The understanding of this issue could be reach from stability studies associated with thermodynamic models of liquid-liquid equilibrium (NRTL) in ternary systems, which will be the basis for modeling proposed in this paper. The research involves direct observation techniques for titration, and stability tests and tensiometry, with some changes of classical techniques. Thus, the main objective is to propose a way to identify and characterize the interfaces of emulsions formed and study the stability of the phases involved. Furthermore, it studies the introduction of alcohols as surfactants to enable the use of mixtures of fuel, even in the region of more than one phase. For development work, emulsions involving basic constituents will be combined in different proportions. The first step consists of mapping the mixtures and proportions which form emulsions, based on the equilibrium curves. Then, it is done the study of characterization and stability of these systems. With this information it is possible to map the direction of an increase in the interface tension and phase separation instability of emulsions in relation to the corresponding ternary diagrams. Finally, it proposes a strategy to estimate the thermodynamic parameters of the NRTL for the species present in the systems studied and predict the behavior of these and similar systems. This mathematical model aims to complement the experimental technique adopted for construction of the equilibrium curves, being successful

Processos biotecnológicos dependem significativamente das técnicas de separação e purificação utilizadas, para manter boa relação custo-benefício na produção em escala industrial de produtos biotecnológicos com fins comerciais, industriais e terapêuticos. A aplicação do sistema micelar de duas fases aquosas (SMDFA) é proposta como alternativa para purificação de biomoléculas/biopartículas, pois permite sua separação e análise, muitas vezes sem que essas percam sua atividade ou propriedades desejadas. Com essa técnica é possível realizar uma partição seletiva que possibilita altos rendimentos. Esse trabalho destinou-se a estudar o emprego dessa metodologia na extração e purificação de Adenovírus em sistema micelar de duas fases aquosas formado por Triton X-114/Suspensão viral. Os ensaios foram realizados em sistemas de 5 g seguindo um planejamento fatorial completo (23) com 4 pontos centrais. Os fatores estudados foram temperatura de extração, pH da suspensão viral e concentração do tensoativo. Sistemas contendo massas de 3g, 10g e 40g foram avaliados. Foi avaliado o efeito do processo de extração com SMDFA sobre a integridade e infectividade de Adenovírus. Alguns dos parâmetros avaliados no processo foram a recuperação da potência viral (RPv) e a recuperação da potência viral específica (RPvø). Esses dois parâmetros avaliam a inativação do Adenovirus pelo processo de extração e ambos apresentaram melhoras quando comparados com a própria suspensão viral para alguns dos sistemas estudados (i.e RPv:341 % e RPvø 1466 %). Esses resultados indicam que o SMDFA foi capaz de particionar seletivamente as partículas virais infecciosas. De acordo com os resultados do planejamento é possível aumentar ainda mais esses resultados controlando as variáveis concentração de tensoativo, pH da suspensão viral e temperatura de extração. / Biotechnological processes depend significantly on separation and purification techniques used to maintain cost-effective industrial-scale production of biotechnological products for commercial, industrial and therapeutic uses. The application of the aqueous two-phase micelar system (ATPMS) is proposed as an alternative for purification, since it allows the separation and analysis of biomolecules /bioparticles, often without loses of activity or their properties. This allows to perform a selective partition that enables high yields. This work aims to study the use of this methodology in the extraction and purification of adenovirus in micelle aqueous two-phase formed by TritonX-114/Viral suspension. All assays were performed in 5 g systems following a full factorial design (23) with four central points. The studied factors were extraction temperature, pH of the viral suspension and concentration of the surfactant. Systems containing masses of 3g, 10g and 40g were evaluated. Extraction procedure effects over integrity and infectivity of adenovirus were also evaluated. Some of the parameters evaluated in the viral recovery process were viral potency (RPv) and recovery of viral specific potency (RPvø). These two parameters measure the inactivation of Adenovirus by the extraction process and both showed improvement when compared with the viral suspension for some of the systems studied (i.e RPv: 341% and RPvø 1466%). These results show that ATPMS selectively partition the infectious viral particles. According to the results of the experimental design is possible to increase, even further, these results controlling the surfactant concentration, viral suspension pH and temperature of extraction.

Uma possível perda de qualidade dos óleos essenciais pode estar associada à decomposição dos compostos terpênicos, quando submetidos ao aquecimento ou contato com o ar, produzindo odores desagradáveis. A redução do teor dos compostos terpênicos, processo conhecido como desterpenação, pode ser realizada por meio de diversas técnicas. Dentre as inúmeras possibilidades, a extração líquido-líquido tem apresentado resultados bastante promissores. Neste contexto, a presente dissertação de mestrado teve como objetivo a determinação experimental e modelagem do equilíbrio líquido-líquido, a (25,0 ± 0,1) °C, dos sistemas modelo de óleo essencial de bergamota e limão compostos, respectivamente, por: limoneno/ acetato de linalila/ linalol/ etanol/ água e limoneno/ γ- terpineno/ β- pineno/ citral/ etanol/ água. Adicionalmente, as propriedades físicas (viscosidade e densidade) dos sistemas supracitados, bem como dos compostos puros, foram também determinadas. Observou-se que o aumento do teor de água no solvente promoveu uma diminuição da extração do linalol (óleo de bergamota) e citral (óleo de limão), entretanto o maior nível de hidratação do etanol acarretou em aumento da região bifásica e da seletividade do solvente em ambos os sistemas estudados. Os dados experimentais obtidos foram correlacionados utilizando-se os modelos termodinâmicos NRTL e UNIQUAC. Para o sistema de óleo essencial de bergamota, o desvio global obtido foi de 0,43% para o modelo UNIQUAC e 0,52% para o NRTL. No que se refere ao sistema de óleo de limão, a equação NRTL foi a que proporcionou a melhor descrição, apresentando um desvio global de 0,29%, em relação ao modelo UNIQUAC, para o qual o desvio obtido foi de 0,32%. Quanto às propriedades físicas, notou-se que a água não exerce muita influência sobre as propriedades da fase terpênica (fase rica em componentes do óleo essencial); entretanto, na fase solvente observou-se que os valores de densidade e a viscosidade foram aumentados com o aumento do nível de água no etanol. / A possible oil quality loss may be associated to the terpenes compounds decomposition, when heated or exposed to air, producing off -flavors. Terpene partial removal, process known as deterpenation, can be performed using many different techniques. Among these various possibilities, the liquid-liquid extraction has shown successful results. The aim of this work was to determine and correlate the liquid-liquid equilibrium experimental data, using thermodynamic models at (25.0 ± 0.1) ºC for bergamot and lemon essential oils model systems composed respectively of limonene/ linalyl acetate/ linalool/ ethanol/ water and limonene/ γ- terpinene/ β- pinene/ citral/ ethanol/ water. Additionally, physical properties (viscosity and density) of the aforementioned systems and pure compounds were determined. It was observed that the higher water content in the solvent led to a lower linalool (bergamot oil) and citral (lemon oil) extraction. However, the highest level of ethanol hydration enlarged the biphasic region and solvent selectivity for both systems. The experimental data were correlated using the NRTL and UNIQUAC thermodynamic models. For bergamot essential oil system, the global deviation was 0.43% for UNIQUAC and 0.52% for NRTL. The NRTL equation provided a better representation of the lemon oil system, with a global deviation value of 0.29%, compared to the UNIQUAC model with a deviation of 0.32%. It was observed that water does not have a significant effect on the terpene phase (essential oil components rich phase) properties. On the other hand, in the solvent phase, it was observed that a higher water content in the ethanol led to higher density and viscosity values.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / The production of biodiesel is generally performed by alkaline transesterification oils with low amounts of free fatty acids (FFAs). In order to decrease the costs of production of biodiesel, low quality waste cooking oils or grease have been investigated as a source alternative, but problems in the purification step due to the formation of soap are found in catalysis with sodium hydroxide. In this work, the ionic liquid choline hydroxide was produced and used as catalyst in the production of biodiesel from oils of frying food. An experimental design was carried out to investigate the influence of variables: molar ratio oil/alcohol, temperature and concentration of catalyst in the conversion of triglycerides and free fatty acids to methyl esters. The concentration of catalyst showed higher influence on conversion, followed by the molar ratio of oil / alcohol. The temperature range did not result in significant conversion changes. The kinetic analysis showed that the highest conversions were obtained with 3 hours of reaction. The statistical design allowed find optimal conditions: 5.5% w/w catalyst molar ratio of oil/methanol 1:12, temperature 40 ÂC and 3 hours of reaction. Thermodynamic properties and acid numbers were determined for reaction products of the reactions carried out in experimental design, in order to provide data for process control. The acid numbers of products of all reactions were significantly reduced, independent of conversion. To evaluate the possibility of recovery and reuse of the ionic liquid, the liquid-liquid equilibrium of systems containing water, 1-butanol and glycerin, water, 1-butanol and choline hydroxide, and the partition in the ionic liquid system water, 1-butanol and glycerin at 30  C were studied. The solubility of the components was evaluated by construction of the binodal curve and the compositions of the equilibrium phases were determined by densitometry. The results show that glycerin is distributed preferably in the phase rich in water and it was not possible to quantify all compositions the water phase system, 1-butanol and choline hydroxide in the case that an electrolytic system. / A produÃÃo de biodiesel à geralmente realizada por transesterificaÃÃo alcalina de Ãleos com baixa quantidade de Ãcidos graxos livres (AGLs). Visando diminuir os custos de produÃÃo do biodiesel, Ãleos de baixa qualidade ou residuais tÃm sido investigados como alternativa de fonte graxa, porÃm problemas na etapa de purificaÃÃo em decorrÃncia da formaÃÃo de sabÃes sÃo encontrados na catÃlise com hidrÃxido de sÃdio. Nesse trabalho, o lÃquido iÃnico hidrÃxido de colina foi produzido e aplicado como catalisador na produÃÃo de biodiesel a partir de Ãleos provenientes da fritura de alimentos. Um planejamento experimental foi realizado para investigar a influÃncia das variÃveis: razÃo molar Ãleo/Ãlcool, temperatura e concentraÃÃo de catalisador na conversÃo de triglicerÃdeos e AGLs a Ãsteres metÃlicos. A concentraÃÃo de catalisador apresentou maior influÃncia na conversÃo, seguido pela razÃo molar Ãleo/Ãlcool. A variaÃÃo de temperatura nÃo implicou em alteraÃÃes considerÃveis de conversÃo. A avaliaÃÃo cinÃtica mostrou que as maiores conversÃes foram obtidas com 3 horas de reaÃÃo. O planejamento estatÃstico permitiu encontrar condiÃÃes Ãtimas: 5,5 % m/m de catalisador, razÃo molar Ãleo/metanol de 1/12, temperatura de 40 ÂC e 3 horas de reaÃÃo. Propriedades termodinÃmicas e Ãndices de acidez foram determinados para os produtos reacionais das reaÃÃes realizadas no planejamento experimental, com o intuito de fornecer dados para o controle do processo. Os Ãndices de acidez dos produtos de todas as reaÃÃes apresentaram reduÃÃo significativa, independente da conversÃo. Para avaliar a possibilidade de recuperaÃÃo e reutilizaÃÃo do lÃquido iÃnico, o equilÃbrio lÃquido-lÃquido dos sistemas contendo Ãgua, n-butanol e glicerina, Ãgua, n-butanol e hidrÃxido de colina e a partiÃÃo do lÃquido iÃnico no sistema Ãgua, n-butanol e glicerina a 30 ÂC foram estudados. A solubilidade dos componentes foi avaliada por meio da construÃÃo da curva binodal e as composiÃÃes das fases em equilÃbrio foram determinadas atravÃs da densimetria. Os resultados mostram que a glicerina se distribui preferencialmente na fase rica em Ãgua e que nÃo foi possÃvel quantificar todas as composiÃÃes das fases do sistema Ãgua, n-butanol e hidrÃxido de colina por se tratar este de um sistema eletrolÃtico.

Orientador: Elias Basile Tambourgi / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T08:45:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Sbruzzi_Dalva_M.pdf: 1983604 bytes, checksum: 3ca47c66cbfb0f6dcff7d83c5b614ccc (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: O curauá (Ananas Erectifolius L.B. Smith), espécie vegetal de porte herbáceo, é uma monocotiledônea pertencente à família Bromeliaceae, nativa da região norte do Brasil, especialmente da Amazônia, de onde pode ser extraída a bromelina. Essa faz parte de um grupo de enzimas proteolíticas, usadas na indústria alimentícia e como medicamento, pois oferece amplo espectro de eficácias terapêuticas: antiedemas, anti-inflamatórias, antitrombóticas e atividades fibrinolíticas. O desenvolvimento de novos processos de extração e purificação de proteínas é muito importante, uma vez que essa é uma etapa limitante na produção de bioprodutos. Sistemas de duas fases aquosas são amplamente utilizados para a separação e purificação de biomoléculas. As vantagens da extração em duas fases aquosas, em comparação com outros métodos de purificação, são o elevado rendimento, a faixa de trabalho próxima do equilíbrio, a fácil ampliação de escala e o uso em processos contínuos. Esta pesquisa propõe a caracterização da bromelina do curauá e a sua purificação por extração líquido-líquido em duas fases aquosas, formadas por um polímero (polietilenoglicol) e um sal (fosfato de potássio). Apresenta também um estudo sobre os custos do processo e o preço de venda estimado, e demonstra a sua viabilidade econômica, quer seja para uso como pré-processo nos tradicionais sistemas cromatográficos, quer para a comercialização direta, como alternativa para a bromelina do abacaxi. Os resultados da caracterização mostraram que as condições ideais de trabalho são pH 8,5 e temperatura 35º C para a variedade branca, e pH 8,5 e 30º C de temperatura para a variedade roxa. A massa molar é de 24 kDa, e o melhor sistema de partição da bromelina foi o SBA PEG 4000 em pH 9. A solução enzimática dos melhores sistemas contém 7 U de bromelina e, aproximadamente, 17 mg/L de proteína total medida por Bradford (curauá branco); e 6 U de bromelina e, aproximadamente, 23 mg/L de proteína total medida por Bradford (curauá roxo). O preço de venda calculado para um litro dessa solução enzimática, quando não se obtém lucro (margem de lucro desejada é 0%), foi estimado em R$75,06. Assim, pode-se concluir que o processo de purificação da bromelina das folhas de curauá, ao ser utilizado sistema bifásico aquoso, PEG/sal, é promissor no que diz respeito a sua possibilidade de produção em escala industrial / Abstract: Curaua (Ananas erectifolius L.B. Smith) is a mocotyledonous herbaceous specie belonging to the Bromeliaceae family and it is native to the north region of Brazil, especially the Amazonian Complex, that we can extract bromelain which belongs to a group of proteolytic enzymes derived from herbaceous species of Bromeliaceae family, which are used in food industries and as drugs as such as they offer a wide spectrum of therapeutic efficacies: antiedemateous, antiinflammatory, antithrombotic and fibrinolytic activities. The development of new extraction and purification processes of proteins is very important, as this is a limiting step in the production of bioproducts. Aqueous two-phase systems are widely used for separation and purification of biomolecules. The advantages of aqueous two-phase extraction compared to other purification methods lie in high productivity, working range close to equilibrium, easy scale up and use in continuous processes. This research proposes the curaua's bromelain characterization, and its purification by a liquid-liquid extraction in aqueous two-phase system, formed by a polymer (polyethylene glycol) and a salt (potassium phosphate). It also presents a study about the costs of this process and the estimated sale price, showing its economic viability, whether it is for use as a pre-process in traditional chromatographic systems or direct commercialization, as an alternative for the bromelain of pineapple. The curaua's bromelain characterization results showed that the ideal working conditions are pH 8.5 and 35 ºC of temperature to white variety and pH 8.5 and 30°C of temperature to purple variety. The curaua's molecular weight is 24 kDa and the best bromelain partitioning system was the SBA PEG 4000 at pH 9. The enzyme solution of the best purification system contains 7 U of bromelain and about 17 mg/L of total protein measured by Bradford (white curaua) and 6 U of bromelain and about 23 mg/L of total protein measured by Bradford (purple curaua). The estimated sale price for a liter of this enzyme solution, when profit is not achieved (0% of desired markup), was estimated at R$ 75, 06. So, the curaua's bromelain purification process using an aqueous two-phase system, PEG/salt, is promising with regard to the possibility of industrial scale production / Mestrado / Sistemas de Processos Quimicos e Informatica / Mestre em Engenharia Química

Orientador: Antonio José de Almeida Meirelles, Charlles Rubber de Almeida Abreu / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-17T20:08:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Hirata_GlauciadeFreitas_M.pdf: 4160128 bytes, checksum: 9b62997885094931827adf8fd70b8a25 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Na indústria de óleos, a remoção dos ácidos graxos livres é a etapa mais importante do processo de purificação. Geralmente, é realizada pelo refino químico ou físico. Em alguns casos, no entanto, o refino convencional provoca resultados indesejáveis. A desacidificação por extração líquido-líquido tem se mostrado uma alternativa viável tecnicamente. Nos estudos realizados, os dados de equilíbrio são determinados e modelados para cada tipo de óleo isoladamente, resultando em modelos que são específicos para cada óleo. No entanto, para obter uma ferramenta preditiva, é necessário considerar as verdadeiras composições presentes nas misturas para que se consiga distinguir o comportamento de cada tipo de sistema de forma satisfatória. Neste trabalho, os dados existentes na literatura foram usados para reajustar os parâmetros de interação entre grupos do método UNIFAC. Isto é necessário porque os parâmetros originais do UNIFAC-LLE não predizem bem o comportamento desse tipo de sistema. Para reajustar estes parâmetros, os sistemas foram modelados considerando sua complexidade. Entretanto, para conseguir comparar com os dados experimentais, as misturas foram consideradas pseudoternárias e pseudoquaternárias (como estão disponíveis os dados experimentais). Uma nova divisão também foi proposto para simplificar a descrição do pseudocomponente óleo. No caso, cada resíduo de ácido graxo (juntamente com "um terço" do resíduo de glicerol) que se liga para formar as moléculas de triacilglicerol foram considerados como componentes independentes, negligenciando sua real conectividade. Isto é útil, pois reduz consideravelmente o número de componentes do pseudocomponente óleo. Para isso, um grupo adicional foi criado (-COOCH5/3). Os desvios encontrados usando os grupos e os parâmetros originais de UNIFAC-LLE foram consideravelmente maiores do que os desvios encontrados para os outros dois casos (parâmetros reestimados e nova divisão), o que demonstra a melhora no poder preditivo do método UNIFAC. Foram determinados dois sistemas de validação, um com óleo de palma e o outro com uma mistura de óleos de babaçu, palma e soja, em que se pode constatar a melhora no poder preditivo, tanto usando os parâmetros originais reajustados como usando os parâmetros ajustados com a nova divisão, quando comparado com os parâmetros originais do UNIFAC-LLE. Este estudo possibilitou a organização dos dados de equilíbrio líquido-líquido para a desacidificação de óleos disponíveis na literatura e, ampliou a possibilidade de uso de tais dados no desenvolvimento e otimização de processos na indústria de óleos vegetais e seus derivados / Abstract: In the industry of oils, the removal of free fatty acids is the most important stage of the purification procedure. It is usually performed by chemical or physical refining. In some cases, however, the conventional refining causes undesirable results. The deacidification by liquid-liquid extraction has proved a viable alternative technically. In the studies carried out, the data regarding equilibrium are determined and modeled for each type of oil alone, resulting in models that are specific for each oil. However, to obtain a predictive tool, it is necessary to consider the true compositions present in the mixtures so that it could distinguish the behavior of each type of system satisfactorily. In this work, the existing data in the literature were used to recalculate group interaction parameters of the UNIFAC method. This is necessary because the original parameters of UNIFAC-LLE do not yield predictions with enough accuracy. To adjust these parameters, the systems were modeled considering its complexity, however, in order to compare with experimental data, the compositions were reduced to pseudo ternary and pseudo quaternary (as are available the experimental data). New groups have also been proposed to simplify the description of the oil pseudocomponent. In this case, each fatty acid residue (together with ¿one third¿ of a glycerol residue) that connects to form the triacylglycerol molecules are considered as independent components, regardless of the true connectivity. This is useful because it reduces the number of components of the oil pseudocomponent. For this, an additional group was created (-COOCH5/3). The derivation found using the original groups and parameters of UNIFAC-LLE was considerably higher than the deviations found in both other cases(adjusted original parameters and new division), showing that the predictive power of the UNIFAC method was improved for this type of system. Two validation systems were made: one with palm oil and the other one with a mixture of babassu oil, palm and soya, where you can see the improvement in predictive power, either using the adjusted original parameters or using the parameters adjusted to the new division, when compared to the original parameters. Thus, this study enabled the organization of the data set of liquid-liquid equilibrium for deacidification of oils available in the literature and extended the use of such data in the development and optimization of procedures in the industry of vegetable oil and its derivatives / Mestrado / Engenharia de Alimentos / Mestre em Engenharia de Alimentos